April '''April''' is the fourth month of the year with 30 days. The name April comes from that Latin word ''aperire'' which means "to open". This probably refers to growing plants in spring. April begins on the same day of week as ''[[July]]'' in all years and also ''[[January]]'' in leap years. April's flower is the Sweet Pea and its birthstone is the Diamond. The meaning of the Diamond is Innocence. == April in poetry == Poets use ''April'' to mean the end of winter. For example: ''April showers bring [[May]] flowers.'' == Events in April == * [[April Fool's Day]] occurs on [[April 1]]st. * [[Easter]] occurs on a [[week|Sunday]] between [[March 22]]nd and [[April 25]]th. * Australia and New Zealand celebrate ANZAC Day on 25th April. [http://www.awm.gov.au/dawn/spirit/meaning.asp ANZAC] means - Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and began in 1915. == Other websites == * [http://www.aprilcalendar.net April Calendar] August '''August''' is the eighth [[month]] of the [[year]]. It has 31 [[day]]s. This month was first called ''[[Sextilis]]'' in [[Latin]], because it was the sixth month in the old [[Roman calendar]]. The Roman calendar began in March about 735 BC with [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]]. It was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King [[Numa Pompilius]] about 700 BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the [[decemvirs]] about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). August is named for [[Augustus Caesar]]. The month has 31 days because the Roman senate wanted as many days as [[Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar's]] month [[July]]. Augustus is in summer, after July and before September. An extra month was moved from February in order to make the of August seem more important. This was undone when the [[leap year]] adjustment was made. August's flower is the [[Gladioli]] with the birthstone being [[Peridot]]. == References == == Other websites == * [http://www.augustcalendar.net August Calendar] Art is a work of art.]] The word '''art''' is used to describe some activities or creations of [[human beings]] that have importance to the human [[mind]], regarding an attraction to the human [[senses]]. Therefore, art is made when a human expresses himself or herself. Some art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay [[bowl]] that one can put things in. Many people disagree on how to define art. Many people say people are driven to make art due to their inner [[creativity]]. Art includes [[drawing]], [[painting]], [[sculpting]], [[photography]], performance art, [[dance]], [[music]], [[poetry]], [[prose]] and [[theatre]]. == Types of art == *Visual Art/The Graphic Arts (expression by making [[image]]s and [[sight]]s): [[drawing]], [[painting]], [[sculpting]], [[photography]], [[Movie|film]]ing, [[fashion]] *Auditory Art (expression by making [[sound]]s): [[music]], [[singing]] *Performing Art/The Dramatic Arts (expression using the body): [[dance]], [[acting]], [[singing]] *Fine Art (expression by making something [[Beauty|beautiful]] or appealing to the [[emotion]]s): [[poetry]], [[writing]] ([[literature]]) *Culinary Art (expression by making [[flavor]]s and [[taste]]s): [[cooking]] *The Mechanical Arts (expression by building objects and structures): [[architecture]] == Definition of art == Some people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind or spirit. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the amount of people who can relate to it, and how much people appreciate it. or when someone arranges colors next to each other in a painting to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting design. == History of art == There are sculptures, [[cave paintings]], rock paintings and [[petroglyphs]] dating from the Upper Paleolithic era, about thirty five thousand (35,000) years ago, All of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient [[Egypt]], [[India]], [[China]], [[Greece]], [[Rome]] or [[Arabia]] had works and styles of art. In the [[Middle Ages]], most of the art in [[Europe]] showed Biblical stories in [[paintings]], [[stained glass]] windows, and [[mosaic]] tile floors and walls. [[Islamic]] art includes [[geometric]] patterns, Islamic [[calligraphy]], and [[architecture]]. In [[India]] and [[Tibet]], painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included [[jade]] carving, bronzework, [[pottery]], [[poetry]], calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty. In Europe, after the Middle Ages, (which some people call the [[Mediaeval Period]] or the "[[Dark Ages]]") there was a "[[Renaissance]]" which means "rebirth". People rediscovered [[science]] and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like [[Michelangelo]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]] still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented [[linear perspective]] where things in the distance look smaller than things close up in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. In the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to [[Modernity]] created many new painting styles such as [[Classicism]], [[Romanticism]], [[Realism]], and [[Impressionism]]. The history of twentieth century art includes [[Expressionism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Dada]]ism, and [[Surrealism]], and [[Minimalism]]. ==Roles of art== In some [[society|societies]], people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her "[[talent]]" into the art. In this view, the art is the [[property]] of the artist. In other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its [[social capital]] into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a [[collective]] that has made the art, through the artist. == See also == *[[Art store]] A : ''This page is about the first [[letter]] in the [[alphabet]]. : ''For the indefinite article, see [[Article (grammar)]].'' : ''For other uses of A, see [[A (disambiguation)]]'' the English long a (ā) is pronounced as a diphthong of ĕ and y. The corresponding letter of the [[Greek alphabet]] is named alpha. Alpha and omega, the last letter of the Greek alphabet, symbolize the beginning and the end, and in the [[New Testament]], [[Christ]]. In [[musical notation]] the letter is the symbol of a note in the scale, below [[B]] and above [[G]]. ===words that start with Aa=== {| class="wikitable" |- !Word !Part of Speech !Definition(s) !Sentence (if have) |- style="background-color:Gainsboro" |a or A |noun |1. The first letter of the English alphabet. 2. The highest mark, as in school. | |- style="background-color:Gainsboro" |a |indefinite article |1. One each 3. Such a per |1. I didn't hear a word you said. 2. A beaver builds dams. 3. This is a person you can trust. 4. Water is a liquid. We paid five dollars a person for the tickets. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. |- style="background-color:Gainsboro" |aardvark |noun |An African animal with large ears, a snout shaped like a tube, and sharp claws. The aardvark uses its claws to dig into the nests of ants and termites and catches these insects with its long, sticky tounge. | |- |abacus |noun |A device made of beads strung on parallel wires on a frame. An abacus can be used to do arithmetic by hand. | |- Air '''air''', [[water]], [[earth]], and [[fire]].'' is used to move air.]] '''Air''' means [[Earth]]'s [[atmosphere]]. It is the clear [[gas]] we live in and [[breathe]] in. It has no [[color]] or [[odor|smell]]. It has [[weight]]. Air creates [[atmosphere pressure]]. There is no air in the [[vacuum]] and [[cosmos]]. Air is a [[mixture]] of 78.03% [[Nitrogen]], 20.99% [[Oxygen]], 0.94% [[Argon]], 0.03% [[Carbon Dioxide]], 0.01% [[Hydrogen]], 0.00123% [[Neon]], 0.0004% [[Helium]], 0.00005% [[Krypton]], 0.000006% [[Xenon]]. Humans need the [[oxygen]] in the air to live. In the [[human body]], the [[lung]]s give oxygen to the [[blood]], and give back [[carbon dioxide]] to the air. [[Plants]] and [[animals]] also need air to live: it is very important to everyone. The [[wind]] is moving air. Air can be polluted from gas, [[smoke]], and [[ash]]. Some believe that this [[pollution]] may be one of the [[cause]]s of [[global warming]]. Air is also what planes fly through and what politicians are full of. There are three things in air, Nitrogen (79%), oxygen (20%), and other types of [[gas]]es (1%). == References == == See also == *[[Aircraft]] *[[Airplane]] *[[Airport]] *[[Air space]] Autonomous communities of Spain Spain is divided in 17 parts called '''autonomous communities'''. ''Autonomous'' means that each of these autonomous communities has its own Executive Power, its own Legislative Power and its own Judicial Power. These are similar, but NOT the same, to states in the United States of America, for example. Spain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In [[1978]] these parts came together, making the autonomous communities. Before then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called "historic communities": Galicia, País Vasco and Cataluña. These communities have 2 official languages: Spanish and their own language (gallego or eusquera or catalán). List of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices): *[[Andalucía]] (its capital is [[Sevilla]]) *[[Aragón]] (its capital is [[Zaragoza]]) *[[Asturias]] (its capital is [[Oviedo]]) *[[Islas Baleares]] (its capital is [[Palma de Mallorca]]) *[[País Vasco]] (its capital is [[Vitoria]]) *[[Islas Canarias]] (it has two capitals - [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] and [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]) *[[Cantabria]] (its capital is [[Santander]]) *[[Castilla-La Mancha]] (its capital is [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]) *[[Castilla y León]] (its capital is [[Valladolid]]) *[[Cataluña]] (its capital is [[Barcelona]]) *[[Extremadura]] (its capital is [[Mérida]]) *[[Galicia]] (its capital is [[Santiago de Compostela]]) *[[La Rioja]] (its capital is [[Logroño]]) *[[Madrid]] (its capital is [[Madrid]]) *[[Murcia]] (its capital is [[Murcia]]) *[[Navarra]] (its capital is [[Pamplona]]) *[[Comunidad Valenciana]] (its capital is [[Valencia]]) Spain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]. They are called "autonomous cities". Alan Turing '''Alan Mathison Turing''' ([[June 23]], [[1912]] - [[June 7]], [[1954]]) was an [[England|English]] [[mathematician]] and [[computer scientist]]. He was one of the first people to work with modern digital [[computer]]s. He was the first person to think of using a computer for different things. He told people that computers could run different [[Computer program|programs]]. Turing introduced the idea of a [[Turing machine]] in 1936. The machine was imaginary, and ran a set of commands. Turing also thought of the [[Turing test]]. During the [[Second World War]], Turing was a main participant in the efforts to break German [[cipher]]s. On the basis of [[cryptanalysis]] he he helped to break both the [[Enigma machine]] and the [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] (a teletype cipher attachment codenamed "Tunny" by the British), and was, for a time, head of [[Hut 8]], the section responsible for reading [[Germany|German]] naval signals. Alan Turing was a [[gay]] man. In [[1952]], Turing admitted having sex with a man. At that time in [[England]], [[homosexuality]] was a crime. He was tried and convicted of this crime in a British court. and was forced to make a choice. He had to choose between going to jail or "chemical castration" (taking female [[hormone]]s like [[estrogen]] to lower his sex drive). He chose the hormones. But this made him impotent (unable to have sex) and made him grow [[breast]]s. After suffering these effects for two years, he committed [[suicide]] (killed himself) with an [[apple]] poisoned with [[cyanide]] in [[1954]]. This kind of treatment is now believed to be very wrong, going against [[medical ethics]] and international laws of [[human rights]], and [[malpractice]] by most [[doctor]]s. Alanis Morissette {{Infobox musical artist | Name = Alanis Morissette | Img = AlanisMorissette.01.jpg | Img_capt =Alanis Morissette at the Brasília Music Festival in [[Brasília]], [[Brazil]]. | Background = solo_singer | Birth_name = Alanis Nadine Morissette | Born = | Died = | Origin = [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] | Instrument = [[Guitar]], [[flute]], [[harmonica]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[singer|vocals]] | Genre = [[Rock music|Rock]], [[Pop music|Dance-pop]], [[Alternative rock|Alternative]] | Occupation = [[Singer]], [[songwriter]], [[actress]], [[record producer]] present | Label = | URL = [http://www.alanis.com/ www.alanis.com] }} '''Alanis Nadine Morissette''' (born [[June 1]], [[1974]]) is a [[Grammy Awards|Grammy Award]]-winning [[Canada|Canadian]]-[[United States|American]]''[[Rolling Stone]]'' ([http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/alanismorissette/articles/story/7000077/in_brief_alanis_jlo "In Brief: Alanis, J.Lo: Alanis gets American citizenship, J.Lo loses European tour"]), [[16 February]] [[2005]]. [[singer]] and [[songwriter]]. She was born in [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]]. She began singing in Canada as a teenager in [[1990]]. In [[1995]], she became popular all over the world. As a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on [[television]], including 5 [[episode]]s of the long-running [[television programme|series]], ''[[You Can't Do That on Television]]''. Her first [[album]] was released only in Canada in [[1990]]. She also acted in several [[movies]], including [[Kevin Smith]]'s ''[[Dogma (movie)|Dogma]]'', where she played [[God]]. ==About her life== Alanis Morisette's father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from [[Hungary]]. She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a [[military]] base in [[Lahr]], [[Germany]]. ==Jagged Little Pill== Morissette has had many albums. Her [[1995]] album ''Jagged Little Pill'' became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwideNewman, Melinda. [http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1000827178 "10 Years On, Alanis Unplugs 'Little Pill'"]. ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''. [[March 4]] [[2005]]. Retrieved [[November 16]] [[2006]].. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. The album ''Jagged Little Pill'' touched many people. On the album, Morissette sang [[song]]s about many different things. These things include: *[[love]] (in the song "Head Over Feet") *[[life]] (in the songs "Ironic" and "You Learn") *her [[emotion|feelings]] (in the songs "Hand In My Pocket" and "All I Really Want") *sadness (in the song "Mary Jane") *[[anger]] (in the song "You Oughta Know") *frustration (in the songs "Not the Doctor" and "Wake Up") ==Discography== ===Albums=== *''Alanis'' (Canada-only, 1991) *''Now Is the Time'' (Canada-only, 1992) *''Jagged Little Pill'' (1995) *''Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie'' (1998) *''Alanis Unplugged'' (1999) *''Under Rug Swept'' (2002) *''Feast on Scraps'' (CD/DVD, 2002) *''So-Called Chaos'' (2004) *''Jagged Little Pill Acoustic'' (2005) *''[[Alanis Morissette: The Collection]]'' (2005) *''[[Flavors of Entanglement]]'' (2008) ===Selected songs=== Morissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are: *"You Oughta Know" - This song is to Morissette's ex-boyfriend, a man she once loved. In this song, Morissette is very angry. She wants her ex-boyfriend to know that he caused many problems after leaving her for another woman. *"Ironic" - This song is about life. It contains several stories about unlucky people. In one of the stories, a man is afraid of flying on [[airplane]]s. He finally flies in one, but the airplane crashes. *"You Learn" - In this song, Morissette says that bad things happen in life, but people learn from them. Anyone can make bad things into good things. She wants people to try new things in life. *"Uninvited" - In this song, Morissette is not happy because she is famous. She does not know whether she wants to continue to be famous or not. *"Thank U" - In this song, she thanks many things that have helped her. She thanks [[India]], a [[country]] she visited and almost died in. She also lists ways she can improve herself. *"Hands Clean" - In this song, a man does something bad, and tells Morissette not to tell anyone else the bad thing the man did. She hides the man's secret for many years. ==References== == Other websites == * [http://www.alanis.com/ Official website] * Adobe Illustrator {{Infobox Software | name = Adobe Illustrator | developer = [[Adobe Systems]] | latest_release_version = CS3 (13.0.3) | latest_release_date = [[February 27]] [[2008]] | latest_preview_version = | latest_preview_date = | programming language = [[C++]] | operating_system = [[Mac OS X]], [[Microsoft Windows]] | genre = [[Vector graphics editor]] | license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]] | website = [http://www.adobe.com/products/illustrator/ Adobe Illustrator Homepage] }} '''''Adobe Illustrator''''' is a [[computer program]] for making [[graphic design]] and [[illustration]]s. It is made by [[Adobe Systems]]. Pictures created in ''Adobe Illustrator'' can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name. ==History== It was first released in [[1986]] for the [[Apple Macintosh]]. The latest version is '''''Adobe Illustrator CS2''''', part of [[Creative Suite]] 2. ==Release history== {| class="prettytable" | '''Version''' || '''Platforms''' || '''Release date''' || '''[[Code name]]''' |- | 1.0 || [[Mac OS]] || January 1987 || [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]] |- | 1.1 || Mac OS || [[March 19]] [[1987]] || [[Inca]] |- | 88 || Mac OS || March 1988 || |- | 2.0 || Windows || January 1989 || Pinnacle |- | 3 || Mac OS, [[NeXT]], other [[Unix|Unices]] || October 1990 || Desert [[Moose]] |- | 3.5 || [[Silicon Graphics]] || 1991 || |- | 4 || [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] || May 1992 || [[Kangaroo]]se |- | 3.5 || [[Solaris (operating system)|Solaris]] || 1993 || |- | 5 || Mac OS || June 1993 || [[Saturn]] |- | 5.5 || Mac OS, Solaris [http://www.sunmanagers.org/archives/1999/0973.html 1999: SUMMARY: Solaris-Adobe Products (a little long)] || June 1994 || [[Janus]] |- | 4.1 || Windows || 1995 || |- | 6 || Mac OS || February 1996 || [[Popeye]] |- | 7 || Mac/Windows || May 1997 || [[Simba]] |- | 8 || Mac/Windows || September 1998 || [[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] |- | 9 || Mac/Windows || June 2000 || Matisse |- | 10 || Mac/Windows || November 2001 || Paloma |- | CS (11) || Mac/Windows || October 2003 || [[Pangaea]]/Sprinkles |- | CS2 (12, 12.0.1) || Mac/Windows || [[April 27]], [[2005]] || [[Zodiac]] |- | CS3 (13) || Mac/Windows || April 2007 || [[Jason Voorhees|Jason]] |} ==References== Andouille '''Andouille''' is a sort of [[pork]] [[sausage]]. It is spicy (hot in taste) and smoked. There are a lot of sorts, all with different combinations of pork [[meat]], [[fat]], [[intestines]] (tubes going to the [[stomach]]), and [[tripe]] (the wall of the stomach). Andouille sausage first came from [[France]] or [[Germany]] (no-one is sure), and the most famous sort in the [[United States|USA]] is the "Cajun" style. they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra [[sodium chloride|salt]], [[black pepper]], and [[garlic]]. Andouille makers smoke the sausages over pecan wood and sugar cane for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius). Farming '''Farming''' is the growing of [[crop]]s or keeping of animals by people for [[food]] and [[raw material]]s. Farming can be called agriculture. ==Overview== Agriculture is not only growing food for people and animals, but also growing other things like [[flower]]s, [[ornamental]] plants (plants people use to improve the look of their homes) and [[nursery]] [[plant]]s (plants people buy to grow food on their own farms and land), manure or dung, [[animal hides]] (skins or furs), [[leather]], industrial chemicals ([[starch]], [[ethanol]], and [[plastic]]s), [[fiber]]s ([[cotton]], [[wool]], [[cannabis|hemp]], and [[flax]]), fuels ([[methane]], [[biodiesel]], [[biomass]]), and [[drug]]s ([[biopharmaceuticals]], [[marijuana]], [[opium]]) Agriculture started at least about 10,000 years ago, but no one knows for sure how old it is. Agriculture and [[domestication]] started in the [[Fertile Crescent]] in East [[Africa]] and in the [[Middle East]]. The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of [[Iraq]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]], and [[Egypt]]. [[Wheat]] and [[barley]] are some of the first crops people grew. People probably started agriculture slowly by planting a few crops, but still gathered (got) many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than gathering on the same amount of land. Farming actually started with the first nations. They might have originally kept tethered (tied with a rope) animals for extra food. Scientists have many theories about how farming started but most start with first nations, around the end of the ice age (about ten thousand years ago). Many people live by doing what is called [[subsistence agriculture]], on a small farm. Only the farmer's family lives on the farm. Subsistence agriculture is growing only enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. Extra food or animals are sold for money or other things the farmer cannot grow. The [[yield]] is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and the yield is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less [[education|educated]], and they have less [[money]] to buy equipment. When yields are low, [[forests]] are sometimes cut to provide new land to grow more food. This is good in the [[short term]], but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years. In rich countries, farms are often much larger. The yield on farms has gotten bigger in the last one hundred years because farmers are able to grow better [[varieties]] of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, which cut down on the number of people needed to farm the land. This results in fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farms are able to produce more food. This kind of [[intensive agriculture]] comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, [[pesticides]] (chemicals that kill bugs), and [[herbicide]]s (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can [[pollute]] the [[soil]] or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by [[erosion]] (blowing or washing away), salt buildup, or loss of structure. [[Irrigation]] (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. Having fewer farmers also changes society and can make a country less able to feed itself in bad times. ===Agriculture techniques=== There are many ways to grow crops and animals. Some of them are : *[[Hydroponic]] *[[Tillage]] by [[plough]] *[[Irrigation]] *[[Fertilizer]]s *[[Crop rotation]] *[[Weed]] removal *[[Breeding]] *[[Agricultural fencing|Fencing]] *[[Ranching]] Farmers select plants with better yield, taste, and [[nutrition]]al value. They also chose plants that are more resistance to disease, more tolerant to drought, and those that are easier to harvest. Centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. The crops produce better yield with other techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, irrigation). For example, the yields of wheat in France are over 90 [[qx/ha]]. In South America, the yields are 20 qx/ha. In Africa, the yields are less than 10 qx/ha. Some companies have been searching for new plants in poor countries, and genetically modify these plants to improve them. They then try to patent the seeds and sell them back to the poor countries. New plants were created with [[genetic engineering]]. One example of [[genetic engineering]] is modifying a plant to resist an herbicide. ==Food== It is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and of good quality. Some people say the food is not always good. They say it is sometimes not safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture. Traditional agriculture is mostly done in poor countries. Intensive agriculture is mostly done in wealthier countries. It uses pesticides, machinery, chemical fertilizers. Organic farming is using only natural products. Integrated farming is using local resources, and trying to use the waste from one process as a resource in another process. [[Agricultural policy]] focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. At the policy level, common goals of agriculture include: *[[Food safety]]: to be sure that the food supply is safe. *[[Food security]]: to be sure there is enough food for everyone. *[[Food quality]]: to be sure the food is of good quality. ==Problems in agriculture== There are some serious problems that face people trying to grow food today. These include: *[[Erosion]] *[[Diseases]] *[[Pests]] *[[weed|Weeds]] *[[Drought]] *[[Rainfall]] *Many non-arable lands If the plants get a big amount of water they can die, if they get a small amount of water they can dry up and die, so that's why all plants need a perfect amount of water depending on what type of plant it is. ==Crops== The major crops produced in the world in 2002, are maize (corn), wheat, rice, and cotton. :Maize 624 millions of metric tons :Wheat 570 millions of metric tons :Rice 381.1 millions of metric tons :Cotton 96.5 millions of metric tons ''See also'': [[List of domesticated plants]], [[List of vegetables]], [[List of herbs]], [[List of fruit]], [[List of domesticated animals]] ==See also== *[[Agricultural science]] *[[International agricultural research]] *[[Timeline of agriculture and food technology]]. *[[Agricultural sciences basic topics]] *[[List of subsistence techniques]] *[[List of sustainable agriculture topics]] *[[Arid-zone agriculture]] *[[Community Supported Agriculture]] There are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants. [[Aquaculture]], the farming of fish, shrimp, and algae, is closely associated with agriculture. [[Beekeeping|Apiculture]], the culture of bees, traditionally for honey, increasingly for crop [[pollination]]. Animal husbandry means breeding and raising animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis. Arithmetic '''Arithmetic''' is what we call working with [[number]]s. Arithmetic studies numbers [[zero]], [[one]], [[2 (number)| two]], [[three]], [[four]], [[five]], [[six]], [[seven]], [[eight]], and [[nine]]. It is a part of [[mathematics]]. The four basic arithmetic operations are [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]], and [[division]]. Harder arithmetic includes working with [[signed number]]s, [[Fraction (mathematics)|fractions]], and [[decimal]]s, and taking [[power (math)|powers]] and [[root (math)|roots]]. Most people learn arithmetic in grade school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic. A few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include [[carpenter]]s, [[plumber]]s, [[automobile mechanic|auto mechanics]], [[accountant]]s, [[doctor]]s, and [[nurse]]s. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, [[science]], and [[engineering]]. [[Calculator]]s are used to do arithmetic, but if a person needs a calculator to do simple arithmetic, like 2 + 2 = 4, then they will be too slow trying to do arithmetic on the job, just as a person who needs to look up the spelling of a word like "cat" in the dictionary will be too slow to write on the job. A skilled worker[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/skilled_worker] has to have a very good knowledge of arithmetic and the English language in order to earn the right [[salary]]. ==Examples of arithmetic== * 2 + 2 = 4 * 7 - 5 = 2 * 3 * 4 = 12 * 6 / 2 = 3 * 3 ^ 2 = 9 Addition '''Addition''' is the [[mathematics|mathematical]] way of putting things together. == Arithmetic == In [[arithmetic]], addition is finding the total of two or more [[number]]s. The sign for addition is "+". The name for the sign "+" is "plus". === Counting examples === For example, there are in two [[group]]s. The objects are small circles: "o". One group has five of these objects. The other group has 3 of these objects. To find the total number of objects in both groups, the objects can be counted. Another way to find the number of objects in both groups is to add the numbers in each group. ====Adding==== Another method is to add the numbers of objects in group A and group B, since they are already counted. In symbols: 5 + 3 There are [[rule]]s for adding numbers that people [[learn]]. There are also rules for adding numbers that are built into machines. The rule says that: 5 + 3 = 8 In another counting example, Sally and Bill have 2 children. Sally and Bill get 3 more children. Sally and Bill have added three children to their two children and now have five children. ===A measurement example=== Tom wants to know the distance between his house and Sally's house. Bob's house is 300 meters east of Tom's house. Sally's house is 120 meters east of Bob's house: Tom's house<------------300 meters-------------->Bob's house<-----120 meters----->Sally's house The distance from Tom's house to Sally's house can be found by adding the distances already measured. The distance from Tom's house to Bob's house added to the distance from Bob's house to Sally's house is the same as the distance from Tom's house to Sally's house. That is, three hundred meters plus 120 meters. 300 + 120 = 420 == Addition as increase == Addition can also mean to make bigger. === Example of addition as increase === * For example, Tom has a house. Tom puts a new room on the house. This new room is called an addition. * John is making [[food]]. To make the food [[taste]] better, John puts [[salt]] in the food. That is, John adds salt to the food. The [[salt]] is an addition to the food. == Less simple == summand + summand + summand = sum. The addition expression 3 + 8 = 11 is spoken as "three plus eight equals eleven." Adding two numbers together is a [[dyadic]] operation. Addition of summands is [[calculated]] by putting dyadic additions together. 40+20+3=(40+20)+3=60+3=63 == Other websites == * [http://www.aaamath.com/add.html AAA Math web page on teaching addition] * [http://www.aplusmath.com/Flashcards/addition.html addition flashcard website] * [http://www.dositey.com/addsub/addition.htm Addition facts and games] Australia {{Infobox Country | fullcountryname = Commonwealth of Australia | image_flag = Flag of Australia.svg | image_coa = Australian Coat of Arms.png | image_location = LocationAU.png | nationalsong = ''[[Advance Australia Fair]]'' | officiallanguages = [[English language|English]] | populationtotal = 21,370,000 (''2008 estimate'') | populationrank = 53 | populationdensity = 2.6 | countrycapital = [[Canberra]] | countrylargestcity = [[Sydney]] | areatotal = 7,741,220 km² | arearank = 6 | areawater = | areawaterpercent = 1 | establishedin = Commonwealth formed: [[1 January]] [[1901]] [[Statute of Westminster]] 1931 | leadertitlename = [[Queen]] [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] represented by [[Governor General]] [[Quentin Bryce]]
[[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Kevin Rudd]] | currency = [[Australian dollar]] ($) | utcoffset = various | dialingcode = 61 | internettld = .au }} '''Australia''' is a [[continent]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]. The [[country]] called Australia occupies the whole of this continent. Its official name is the '''Commonwealth of Australia'''. Australia is the sixth biggest country in the world. Many people also call Australia the "lucky country." The [[continent]] of Australia and the islands of [[New Zealand]] are called [[Australasia]]. The islands nearby are [[Oceania]]. ==Geography== The continent of Australia, including the island of Tasmania, was separated from the other continents of the world many millions of years ago. Because of this, many [[animals]] and [[plants]] live in Australia that are not found anywhere else. These include animals like the [[kangaroo]], the [[koala]], the [[emu]], the [[kookaburra]], and the [[platypus]]. People first arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. These native Australians are called the [[Australian Aborigine]]s. For the history of Australia, see [[History of Australia]]. Most of the Australian colonies, having been settled from [[Britain]], became mostly independent democratic states in the 1850s and all six combined as a federation on [[1 January]] [[1901]]. The first prime minister of Australia was [[Edmund Barton]] in [[1901]]. Australia is a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. It is a [[parliamentary democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]] with the British monarch as Head of State. ===Regions and cities=== Australia has six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], and [[Western Australia]].The two major mainland territories are the [[Northern Territory]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT). In July [[2007]] Australia had just over 21 million people. Most Australians live in cities along the coast, such as [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth]], [[Darwin, Australia|Darwin]], [[Hobart]] and [[Adelaide]]. The largest inland city is [[Canberra]], which is also the nation's captital. The largest city is Sydney. Although Australia is a very big country, a lot of the land is very dry. The middle of the continent is mostly [[desert]]. Only the areas around the east and south coast have enough rain and a suitable [[climate]] (not too hot) for many [[farm]]s and [[cities]]. ==History== ===Aboriginal people=== The [[Australian Aborigine|Australian Aboriginal]] people arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. Until the arrival of English settlers in 1788, the Aboriginal people lived by hunting and gathering food from the land. They managed the land in a way that meant there was usually plenty of food. An example of Aboriginal land management was the Cumberland Plain where Sydney is now. Every few years the Aboriginal people would burn the grass and small trees. This meant that a lot of grass grew back, but not many big trees. Kangaroos like to live on grassy plains, but not in forests. The kangaroos that lived on the plain were a good food supply for the Aboriginal people.The aboriginies would name a person after an animal, and they could not eat that animal to help level out the food population. Aboriginal people did not usually build houses, except huts of grass, leaves and bark. They did not usually build walls or fences, because there were no horses, cows or sheep in Australia that needed to be kept in pens. The only Aboriginal buildings that are known are fish-traps made from stones piled up in the river, and the remains of a few stone huts in [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]] and [[Tasmania]]. The Aboriginal people did not use metal or make pottery or use bows and arrows or weave cloth. In some parts of Australia the people used sharp flaked-stone spearheads, but most Aboriginal spears were made of sharply pointed wood. Australia has a lot of trees that have very hard wood that was good for spear making. The Aboriginal people did not think that the land belonged to them. They believed that they had grown from the land, so it was like their mother, and they belonged to the land. ===Terra Australis=== In the 1600s, [[Dutch]] merchants traded with the islands of [[Batavia]] now ([[Indonesia]]), to the north of Australia and several different Dutch ships touched on the coast of Australia. The Dutch Governor, van Diemen, sent [[Abel Tasman]] on a voyage of discovery and he found [[Tasmania]], which he named [[Van Diemen's Land]]. Its name was later changed to honour the man who discovered it. The [[British Government]] were sure that there must be a very large land in the south, that hadn't been explored. They sent Captain [[James Cook]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. His ship, H.M.S. "Endeavour" carried the famous scientists, Sir [[Joseph Banks]] and Dr Solander who were going to [[Tahiti]] where they would watch the planet [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] pass in front of the [[Sun]]. Captain Cook's secret mission was to find "Terra Australis" (the Land of the South). The voyage of discovery was very successful, because they found [[New Zealand]] and sailed right around it. Then they sailed westward. At last, a boy, William Hicks, who was up the mast spotted land on the [[horizon]]. Captain Cook named that bit of land [[Point Hicks]]. They sailed up the coast and Captain Cook named the land that he saw "New South Wales". At last they sailed into a large open bay which was full of fish and stingrays which the sailors speared for food. Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander went ashore and were astonished to find that they did not know what any of the plants or birds or animals that they saw were. They collect hundreds of plants to take back to England. Captain Cook saw the Aboriginal people with their simple way of life. He saw them fishing and hunting and collecting grass seeds and fruit. But there were no houses and no fences. In most parts of the world, people put up a house and a fence or some marker to show that they own the land. But the Aboriginal people didn't own the land in that way. They belonged to the land, like a baby belongs to its mother. Captain Cook went home to England and told the Government that no-one owned the land. This was to cause a terrible problem for the Aboriginal people. ===Settlement=== In the 1700s, in England, there was a very serious problem with the laws. A person could be sentenced to death for stealing a loaf of bread. Many people were hanged for small crimes. But usually they were just thrown in gaol. Often they were sent away to the British Colonies in America. But in 1770, the colonies in America became the United States. They were free from British rule and would not take England's convicts any more. By the 1780s the [[gaol]]s ([[jail]]s) of England were so full that convicts were often chained up in rotting old ships. The Government decided to make a settlement in New South Wales and send some of the convicts there. In 1788 the [[First Fleet]] of eleven ships set sail from [[Portsmouth]] carrying convicts, sailors, marines, a few free settlers and enough food to last for two years. Their leader was Captain [[Arthur Phillip]]. They were to make a new colony at the place that Captain Cook had discovered, named Botany Bay, because of the plants found there by the two scientists. Captain Phillip found that [[Botany Bay]] was flat and windy. There was not much fresh water. He went with two ships up the coast and sailed into a great harbour which he said was "the finest harbour in the world!" There were many small bays on the harbour so he decided on one which had a good stream of fresh water and some flat shore to land on. On the 26th January, [[1788]], the flag was raised and New South Wales was claimed in the name of King George III of England, and the new settlement was called Sydney. For the first few years of the settlement, things were very difficult. No-one in the British Government had thought very hard about what sort of convicts should be sent to make a new colony. Nobody had chosen them carefully. There was only one man who was a farmer. There was no-one among the convicts who was a builder, a brickmaker or a blacksmith. No-one knew how to fix the tools when they broke. The cattle all escaped. There were no cooking pots. All the plants were different so no-one knew which ones could be eaten. There was a grave danger that everyone in the new colony would die of starvation. Somehow, the little group of tents with a hut for the Governor, Arthur Phillip, and another hut for the supply of food, grew into a small town with streets, a bridge over the stream, a windmill for grinding grain and warves for ships. By the 1820s there was a fine brick house for the Governor. There was also a hospital and a convict barracks and a beautiful church which are still standing today. Settlements had spread out from Sydney, firstly to [[Norfolk Island]] and to [[Van Diemen's Land]] (Tasmania), and also up the coast to Newcastle, where coal was discovered, and inland where the missing cattle were found to have grown to a large herd. Spanish Merino sheep had been brought to Sydney, and by 1820, farmers were raising fat lambs for meat and also sending fine wool back to the factories of England. While the settlement was growing in New South Wales, it was also growing in Tasmania. The climate in Tasmania was more like that of in England, and farmers found it easy to grow crops there. ===Exploration=== Because Australia is such a very large land, it was easy to think that it might be able to hold a very large number of people. In the early days of the colony, a great number of explorers went out, searching for good land to settle on. When the settlers looked west from Sydney, they saw a range of mountains which they called the [[Blue Mountains]]. They were not very high and didn't look very rugged but for many years no-one could find their way through them. In 1813 [[Gregory Blaxland]], [[William Lawson]] and a 17 year-old called [[William Charles Wentworth]] crossed the Blue Mountains and found land on the other side which was good for farming. A road was built and the Governor, [[Lachlan Macquarie]] founded the town of [[Bathurst, New South Wales|Bathurst]] on the other side, 100 miles from Sydney. Some people, like Captain [[Charles Sturt]] were sure that there must be a sea in the middle of Australia and set out to find it. Many of the explorers did not prepare very well, or else they went out to explore at the hottest time of year. Some died like [[Burke and Wills]]. [[Ludwig Leichhardt]] got lost twice. The second time, he was never seen again. Major [[Thomas Mitchell]] was one of the most successful explorers. He mapped the country as he went, and his maps remained in use for more than 100 years. He travelled all the way to what is now western Victoria, and to his surprise and annoyance found that he was not the first white person there. The Henty brothers had come from [[Tasmania]], had built themselves a house, had a successful farm and fed the Major and his men on roast lamb and wine. ==Politics== Australia is made up of six [[state]]s and two . Each of state and territory has its own [[Parliament]] and makes its own local [[law]]s. The [[Australian Parliament]] sits in Canberra and makes laws for the whole country, also known as the Commonwealth or [[Federation]]. The [[Federation|Federal]] government is led by the [[Prime Minister of Australia]], who is the member of Parliament chosen as leader. The current Prime Minister is [[Kevin Rudd]], elected in November 2007. He is the leader of a [[political party]] called the [[Australian Labor Party]]. The other main party is the [[Liberal Party (Australia)|Liberal Party]] The leader of Australia is the Prime Minister, although the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] represents the Queen of Great Britain as head of state. The Governor-General, currently, Her Excellency Ms [[Quentin Bryce]], is chosen by the Prime Minister. ==Culture== Australia was [[Colonisation|colonised]] by people from [[Britain]], but today people from all over the world live there. Australia is [[multiculturalism|multicultural]], which means that all its people are helped to keep their different languages, religions and ways of life, while also learning [[English language|English]] and joining in with other Australians. The famous [[artist]]s, [[musician]]s, [[writer]]s, [[scientist]]s, [[soldier]]s, and [[sports]] who are Australian include [[Patrick White]] who won a [[Nobel Prize]] for his writing, the [[opera]] [[singer]] Dame [[Joan Sutherland]], the pop singer [[Kylie Minogue]], the [[cricket]]er Sir [[Donald Bradman]], the [[swimming|swimmer]] [[Ian Thorpe]] and the [[athlete]] [[Cathy Freeman]]. he is recognised as one of the great English-language writers of the twentieth century. Australia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and the multi-cultural SBS), three commercial television networks, three pay TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. ===Sport=== some of the highest rating television programs include the summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions. == Other websites == * [http://www.australia.com Official website for australia travel] Official website for australia travel. * [http://www.australien-links.ch Australia travel informations] User generated guide to Australia. American English '''American English''' or '''U.S. English''' is the [[dialect]] (or rather, a variety of dialects) of [[English language]] spoken in the [[United States]]. It is different in some ways from other variations of English, such as [[British English]]. Historically, many types of American English can be found in old local dialects of England. Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country where another form of English is spoken. This is partly because people hear and read American English via the [[media]], for example [[CNN]] television, and the [[Internet]], where the most common form of English is American English. Because people all over the world hear and read American English as well as other versions of English we may find that the English language starts to take on (acquire) new words. English has been changing for centuries, adding new words to its [[vocabulary]]. For example, the English language spoken in [[India]] & [[Pakistan]], which has more than one billion people, will add more American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words adopted into English usage in India from Indian languages such as [[Hindi]] & [[Urdu]]. Sometimes people will learn American English as it is spoken in America - for example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English in order to sound more like their customers who call India from America. These people often continue to use American English in everyday life. Many word definitions are different in '''American English'''. Most changes in a language start with small things like this - for instance [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]] all came from [[Latin]] due to many small changes in use over centuries. ==Spelling in American English== Compared to British English, in American English: * [[doughnut]] is spelled "donut" * [[center|centre]] is spelled "center" * [[color|colour]] is spelled "color" * [[draught]] is spelled "draft" * [[honour]] is spelled "honor" * [[jail|gaol]] (uncommon) is spelled "jail" * [[neighbour]] is spelled "neighbor" * [[plough]] is spelled "plow" * [[realise]] is spelled "realize" * [[summarise]] is spelled "summarize" * [[criticise]] is spelled "criticize" There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English, e.g.: * [[ladybird]] is called "ladybug". * [[aeroplane]] is called "airplane". * [[nappies]] are referred to as "diapers" * [[trousers]] are referred to as "pants" ==See Also== [[African American Vernacular English]] Aquaculture '''Aquaculture''' is the [[farming]] of [[fish]], [[shrimp]], and [[algae]]. Aquaculture supplies fish (such as catfish, salmon, and trout, shrimp, and algae). Aquaculture was developed a long time ago in [[China]] and aquaculture supplies for over 20% of all the seafood harvested. However aquaculture is quite a new activity in [[Canada]] as it only began in the [[1879]]. Abbreviation An '''abbreviation''' is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot. The [[English language]] occasionally uses the [[apostrophe]] mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark. More often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the [[Latin]] language. Common Latin abbreviations include '''i.e.''' [id est] ''that is'', '''e.g.''' [exempli gratia] ''for example'', and '''et al.''' [et alia] ''and others''. Some new abbreviations have been created by [[scientist]]s, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the [[Internet]]. People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are [[acronym]]s. Here are examples of common acronyms: The word "[[radar]]" is an [[acronym]] for "Radio Detection and Ranging". The name of the large computer company [[IBM]] comes from the words "International Business Machines". The name of the part of the [[United States]] government that sends [[rocket]]s into [[outer space]] is NASA, from the words "National Aeronautics and Space Administration". When people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write "LOL" to mean "Laughing Out Loud". People sometimes write "ASAP" for "As Soon As Possible". ==Other Websites== *[http://www.acronymfinder.com Acronym Finder] - largest acronym site with many ways to search for acronyms and abbreviations in many languages. Over 10 year history. Angel In many [[religion]]s, an '''angel''' is a good [[spirit]]. In the [[Old Testament]], the [[New Testament]], and the [[Qur'an]] angels appear frequently as the messengers of [[God]]. In all of these, angels appear like humans. They usually have wings like a bird. In Christianity angels are helpers of god who are ministers to the faithful. Angels don't have the ability to sin. The word angel comes from the Greek word ''angelos'' which means "messenger". In the Bible angels often punished peoples for their sins. They tested people's faith in God. Angels in the Bible are usually pictured with wings and a halo. The wings represent their speed, and the halo represents their holiness. Few angels are named in the Bible apart from [[Michael]] and [[Gabriel]]. Ad hominem '''Ad hominem''' is a [[Latin language|Latin]] term. It is used in [[rhethorics]]. Rhetorics is the science of how to speak well, and how to convice other people of your [[idea]]s. Translated to English, ''ad hominem'' means ''against the person'' (Latin ''homo'', where ''hominem'' is a form is [[gender]]-neutral. In ancient [[Rome]] it referred to all free men, and by extension to all free human beings). The term is used to describe a rhetorical argument, that is directed towards the person who says something, not about the cause at hand. It is a way to use [[reputation]] and and [[hearsay]] to change minds. When a [[social network]] has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a [[label]] to them, this works more often. Because it works and is also [[unfair]] to everyone who would benefit from [[what]] they say, it is considered to be a weak or poor argument. [[Formal disapproval]] of those who use it is common in a [[court]] or in [[diplomacy]], where is high. ==What an ad hominem argument looks like== In [[logic]], a is something that starts with [[premise]]s, and goes through a few logical [[argument]]s, to reach a [[conclusion]]. ===Normal (valid) proof=== #All [[human]]s are mortal #[[Socrates]] is a man (he is human) #Therefore, Socrates is mortal. ===Ad hominem example=== #Person A thinks [[abortion]] should be [[illegal]] #Person A is uneducated and poor #Therefore abortion should not be illegal. In this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal. ==See also== *[[Fallacy]] for a list of other types of (false) rhetorical arguments. Native American '''Native Americans''' (also '''Aboriginal Peoples''', '''Aboriginal Americans''', '''American Indians''', '''Amerindians''', '''Amerind''', '''Indians''', '''First Nations''', '''First Peoples''', '''Alaskan Natives''', '''Native Canadians''', or '''Indigenous Peoples of America''') are those people who were in [[North America]], [[Central America]], [[South America]], and the [[Caribbean]] Islands when the [[Europe]]ans came there. The Europeans were travelling west, so they thought they were going to [[India]]. This is why they called the people "Indians". Sometimes these people are called "[[Indian]]s", but this is confusing, because it is the same word used for people from [[India]]. The words [[aboriginal]] or [[first people]] or [[indigenous]] people are also used. Other names for these for Native Americans are [[First Nations]] (in [[Canada]]) and "Red Indians" (this is not used much any more). There are many different [[tribe]]s of American Indian people, with many different languages. Many American Indians died after the Europeans came to the Americas, from [[disease]]s that came with the Europeans that were new to the Indians, in [[war]]s with the Europeans, or because the Europeans made them work as [[slave]]s. Most of the American Indians were hurt or killed by settlers who wanted to take their lands. Most people think that the ancestors of American Indians came to the Americas from [[Asia]]. Some of them may have come to America over 12,000 years ago when [[Alaska]] was connected to Asia by land. Some people think that they came to the Americas even before that. Some of their ancestors may have come along the coastline in small boats or canoes, because sometimes there were glaciers blocking the land between Alaska and Asia. Some Indian tribes and languages of North America are [[Cherokee]], [[Maya]] or [[Yucatec Maya]], [[Aztecs]], [[Navajo]], and [[Sioux]]. Some Indian tribes and languages of South America are [[Aymara]], [[Guarani]], [[Quechua]], and [[Tupi]]. Apple {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Apple | image = Koeh-108.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = Apple tree (''Malus domestica'') | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Rosales]] | familia = [[Rosaceae]] | subfamilia = [[Maloideae]] | genus = ''[[Malus]]'' | species = '''''M. domestica''''' | binomial = ''Malus domestica'' | binomial_authority = [[Moritz Balthasar Borkhausen|Borkh.]] }}An '''apple''' is a kind of [[fruit]]. The apple fruit is sometimes located on the branch of a tree. A [[ripe]]A ripe apple is an apple that is ready to eat. apple might also be [[green]], [[brown]] or [[yellow]]. The [[shape]] of an apple is a [[ball]]. An apple is about 18 [[centimeters]] [[around]]. The [[skin]] of the apple is [[thin]]. Apples are fruits. Apples can [[taste]] [[sweet]]. Apples can [[taste]] [[sour]]. Apples have [[seed]]s in the middle. People first grew apple trees in [[Central Asia]]. Apples are now grown in most of the [[cool]]er parts of the [[world]]. Sometimes apples are eaten after they are [[cooked]]. Often apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into [[drink]]s. [[Apple juice]] and apple [[cider]] are apple drinks. The flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a [[tool]] that removes the core, or by carefully using a [[knife]]. The [[scientific name]] of the apple tree genus in the [[Latin]] language is ''Malus''. Most apples that people grow are of the ''Malus domestica'' species. Most apples are good to eat [[raw]] (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of [[bake]]d foods, such as [[apple pie]]. Apples are cooked until they are to make [[apple sauce]]. Apples are also made into the [[drink]]s [[apple juice]] and [[cider]]. Usually, cider contains a little [[alcohol]], about as much as [[beer]]. The regions of [[Brittany]] in [[France]] and [[Cornwall]] in [[England]] are known for their apple ciders. If one wants to grow a certain type of apple it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have [[DNA]] from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also have DNA from the apple flower that [[pollinate]]d the seeds, which may well be a different type. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two. In order to grown a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown [[stump]] called a rootstock. The tree that grows will only create apples of the type needed. ==In the United Kingdom== In the [[United Kingdom]] there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in England is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple. Apple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organisations such as [http://www.commonground.org.uk/ Common Ground] teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit. '[[Apple Day]]' is celebrated each [[October 21]] in many places. ==In North America== Many apples are grown in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. In many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations: *[[Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival]] - held six days every spring in [[Winchester, Virginia]]. *[[Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival]] - held five days every spring (May-June) in [[Nova Scotia]]. *[[Washington State Apple Blossom Festival]] - held two weeks every spring (April-May) in [[Wenatchee, Washington]]. == Varieties of apples == There are lots of different varieties of apples, including: * [[Granny Smith]] * [[Pink Lady]] * [[Golden Delicious]] (some times called a Green Delicious Apple) * [[Gala]] * [[Red Delicious]] * [[McIntosh]] * [[Winesap]] * [[Fuji]] * [[Jonagold]] ==Family== Apples are in the group [[Maloideae]]. It is a subfamily of the family ''[[Rosaceae]]''. They are in the same subfamily as [[pears]]. Its family is the family of rose like plants, and roses are in the family. ==See also== ==Notes== == Other websites == *[http://www.allaboutapples.com/varieties/ View over 700 Apple variety listings] - at AllAboutApples.com *[http://www.scintro.com Scintro fruit book] - All about fruits *[http://www.nickhirst.org.uk/index.htm Cumbria Apple Project] Abrahamic religion People use the term '''Abrahamic Religion''' for a number of [[religion]]s that recognise [[Abraham]] as an important person. The best known and probably most popular Abrahamic religions are [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]. Another Abrahamic religion is the [[gonsticisam|gnostic]] movement called [[Mandaeism]]. Mandaeism originated in the [[2nd century|2nd]] or [[3rd century]] in moden-day [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]], probably from a movement with Christian backgrounds. Other movements are [[Bahai]] and [[Rastafarianism]]. The Bahai faith originated in the [[19th century]] and Rastafarianism in the early [[20th century]]. Even though these religions are quite different from each other in many ways, they also agree in many other very important ways on the basic general nature of the one [[God]] whom they worship. The word "Abrahamic" refers to the ancient [[prophet]] [[Abraham]], who is respected in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as the first prophet of God. Another thing Abrahamic religions have in common is that they are "[[monotheism|Monotheistic]]" (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for "one" and "God"), meaning belief in just one God. They also all believe that people should pray to this God often. == Other websites == *[http://www.beliefnet.com/features/abrahamicfaiths.html The Abrahamic Faiths: A Comparison] How do Judaism, Christianity, and Islam differ? More from [[Beliefnet]] *[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/173/story_17380_1.html What's Next? Heaven, hell, and salvation in major world religions] A side-by-side comparison of different religion's views from [[Beliefnet]]. Algebra '''Algebra''' is a part of [[mathematics]] (maths) that helps show the general links between [[number]]s and math operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing) used on the numbers. Algebra does this by using [[letter]]s (''a'',''b'',''c'',...) or other symbols to represent numbers, either because the numbers are [[unknown (math)|unknown]] or because the numbers change during the course of the problem, in which case the letters are called [[variable]]s. In many math problems, time is a variable, often represented by the letter ''t''. Using the basic ideas in algebra can help reduce a math problem to its simplest form making it easier to solve difficult problems. Algebra is taught in school to help in harder mathematics, [[science]], and [[engineering]] classes. Here is a simple example of an algebra problem. Sue has 12 jellybeans, Ann has 24 jellybeans. They decide to share, so that they have same jellybeans. Let ''x'' represent the number of jellybeans Ann gives to Sue. Then we want 12 + ''x'' = 24 - ''x''. Here are steps you can use to solve the problem. 1) Subtract 12 from both sides of the equation. This gives ''x'' = 12 - ''x''. 2) Add ''x'' to both sides of the equation. This gives 2''x'' = 12. 3) Divide both sides of the equation by 2. This gives ''x'' = 6. If Ann gives Sue 6 jellybeans, they will have the same number of jellybeans. Of course, this problem could be solved without algebra. The purpose of simple story problems such as this one is to teach algebra, so that the students can use algebra when faced with a problem that is too hard to solve any other way. Problems such as building a freeway, designing a cell phone, or finding the cure for a disease all require alegbra. In addition to "[[elementary algebra]]", or basic algebra, there are advanced forms of algebra, taught in colleges and universities, such as [[abstract algebra]], [[linear algebra]], and [[universal algebra]]. Algebra can be used to solve real problems because the rules of algebra work in real life and numbers can be used to represent the values of real things. ==Writing algebra== In algebra, adding ''z'' to ''y'' (or ''y'' plus ''z'') is written as y + z. z. z, or yz. yz is the most usual form of writing the [[product (mathematics)|product]] of ''y'' and ''z'' in algebra. ''y'' = ''y'') and so is not necessary. is not used, because it looks too much like the letter x. z or y/z. y/z is more commonly used. ==Graphing algebra== Algebra also introduces graphing and the basic formula y = mx + b where ''b'' is the [[y-intercept]] of the graph and ''m'' is the [[slope]]. This formula applies to the coordinates of the graph or (x, y). ==History== The word "algebra" is a [[Latin language|Latin]] form of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''Al-Jabr'' ("casting") and comes from a mathematics book ''Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah'', ("Essay on the Computation of Casting and Equation") written in the [[9th century]] by a famous [[Iran|Persian]] mathematician, [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]], who was a [[Islam|Muslim]] born in [[Kharazm]] in [[Iran]]. He flourished under Al-Ma'moun in [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]] through 813-833 AD, and died around 840 AD. The book was brought into [[Europe]] and [[translation|translate]]d into Latin in the [[12th century]]. The book was then given the name 'Algebra'. ==See also== *[[List of mathematics topics]] As '''As''' is a [[connective]] to [[compare]] the [[similar]]ities of two ideas. Like "[[like]]", this is called a [[simile]]. But '''as''' is more often used in [[idiom]]s specific to English: *"Green as grass" *"Right as rain" Usually, one idea is more [[abstract]] and the other is more [[concrete]] - and the connective is intended to be more general than just one situation. When this is so, using "as" may imply that a [[conceptual metaphor]] is in effect in other statements: *"Love as war" *"Time as a path" In other words, you can say more generally what an [[idiom]] or [[metaphor]] says: for example, "[[battle of the sexes]]" is both a [[metaphor]] and an [[idiom]] that suggests "love as war". Because of this power, you can restate an idiom or metaphor in a way that makes it clear what it means, and what it might assume. Atom {| border="1" cellspacing="0" align="right" cellpadding="2" style="margin-left:1em" |- ! bgcolor=gray | Atom |- | align="center" | |- | align="center" | '''Helium atom model'''
Showing nucleus with two protons (blue)
and two neutrons (red),
orbited by two electrons (waves). |- ! bgcolor=gray | Classification |- | {| align="center" |- | Smallest recognised division of a [[chemical element]] |} |- | |- ! bgcolor=gray | Properties |- | |- | {| align="center" |- | [[atomic mass|Mass]]: || 1.66 x 10(−27) to 4.52 x 10(−25) [[kg]] |- | [[Electric charge]]: || zero |- | Diameter: | [[1 E-11 m|10 pm]] to [[1 E-10 m|100 pm]] |} |} An '''atom''' is the most simple type of [[particle]] that makes up [[matter]]. Matter is anything that has [[mass]] and uses space. It is the smallest part of an [[chemical element|element]] that still has the properties of that certain element. When you see atoms as ball-shaped, they have [[diameter]]s of about 10-10 meters (that's 0.0000000001 m). They have masses around 10-23g (that's 0.00000000000000000000001 g.) == Origin == The word "atom" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἀτόμος, ''indivisible'', from ἀ-, ''not,'' and τόμος, ''a cut.'' Until the end of the 19th century, many people believed atoms were very tiny, solid balls which could never be divided. This idea comes from [[Democritus]] and [[Leucippus]], Greek [[philosopher]]s in the [[5th century BC]]. People believed this until the early [[20th century]] when tests by physicists trying to provide [[nuclear power]] disproved it. == Types of atom == Atoms are made of 3 kinds of [[sub-atomic particle]]s - [[proton]]s, [[neutron]]s and [[electron]]s. A proton has a positive charge. A neutron has no charge. An electron has a negative charge. Electrons have much less weight than the protons and neutrons. Electrons move very fast around the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the number of protons is the same as the number of electrons. In other atoms, such as [b][[isotope]]s[/b] the number of neutrons is not the same as the number of protons. Charged atoms are called [[ion]]s. Atoms with fewer electrons than protons have a positive charge. These atoms are called '''cations'''. Atoms with more electrons than protons have a negative charge. These atoms are called '''anions'''. === Structure === The [[nucleus (physics)|nucleus]] is at the center of an atom. The ''nucleus'' contains ''protons'' and ''neutrons'', which are tightly packed together. Because of this, the nucleus is positively charged. Protons and neutrons have similar mass. A nucleus is much smaller than its atom. The nucleus is more than 100,000 times smaller than the atom - the size of the atom is determined by the size of the outer electron shell. For an example of size difference, if the atom were the size of a football stadium, the atom's nucleus would be the size of a pea in the middle. Most of an atom is empty space which is occupied by electrons spinning around. == Shells == Electrons orbit at different distances from the nucleus. We say those closest to the nucleus are in one "shell," and those a little farther away are in another "shell." Each shell is given a number. The one closest to the nucleus is shell 1, the next one out is shell 2, and so on. :Shells are one idea scientists have about how the electrons are located outside and around the nucleus. they are arranged in a manner that explains some of the chemical periodic properties of the elements. == Classification == Atoms are usually put into groups based on their [[atomic number]]. The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the atom. The atomic number decides what family or "element" the atom belongs to. For example, [[carbon]] atoms are atoms with 6 protons in their nucleus. All atoms with the same atomic number share many of physical properties and have the same chemical behavior. The different kinds of atoms are listed in the [[Periodic table]]. The [[mass number]] or "nucleon number" is the total of protons and neutrons. The number of neutrons does not change the element of the atom - within an element family are several members, each with the same atomic number but different mass numbers. These are called [[isotope]]s. To write the name of an isotope, we write the name of an element, then its mass number. For example, Carbon-14 (which has 6 protons and 8 neutrons in each atom). Some isotopes are [[radioactive]], meaning they give off [[radiation]]. Others are called stable, meaning they do not give off any radiation. Any atom that has an [[atomic number]] of 83 or higher is also radioactive, whatever isotope it is. Radioactive atoms and isotopes are dangerous to any living thing except in very small amounts. They should only be handled by experts because they can make people very sick if not handled correctly. [[Doctor]]s sometimes use isotopes. For example, the isotopes of [[Barium]] and [[Iodine]] are used to help find [[illness]]es, but they should still be handled very carefully, even though they use very small amounts which are not enough to make a person sick. Only 94 different types of atoms are found in nature, A few more have been made in [[laboratory|laboratories]]). The next element we make could be an ultra-light solid. It could be a liquid with a boiling point of over 2,000,000 degrees Celsius. === The Periodic Table === Every different kind of atom has a [[name]] and every name has an [[abbreviation]]. The 94 kinds of atoms are usually listed in a [[table]]. The table is called the [[periodic table]]. A scientist called [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] was the first to think of the table. Because of this and other things he did, element 101 was called Mendelevium when it was discovered. Lots of atoms that have higher numbers are radioactive, like [[radium]] and [[uranium]], and should never be handled without a lot of care and protection because they give off so much [[radiation]]. the hydrogen isotope with 2 additional neutrons is called ''tritium''. It has been the subject of much interest in science, particularly in the early development of [[quantum theory]]. ==== Examples ==== The first 11 kinds of atoms (also called elements) are called [[hydrogen]], [[helium]], [[lithium]], [[beryllium]], [[boron]], [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[fluorine]], [[neon]] and [[sodium]]. Their abbreviations are H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne, Na. You may notice that Sodium does not fit with Na. This is because sodium was most commonly called ''natrium'' in the past. This has carried over into other parts of science as well. ''[[Hyponatremia]]'' is an illness where the body lacks enough salt to function properly. == The purpose of an atom == All matter and all substances are made up of these 95 kinds of atoms. Most things contain far fewer types of atoms. [[Water]], for example, contains only atoms of [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. In water these atoms form combinations called [[molecule]]s. == Other websites == * [http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/3-atoms.htm General information on atomic structure] * [http://www.watertown.k12.wi.us/HS/Staff/Buescher/atomtime.asp Atomic structure timeline] Astronomy '''Astronomy''' is the study of [[planet]]s, [[star]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]], and other objects found in [[outer space]]. Astronomy is one of the oldest [[science]]s. It was done even before [[history]] was written. Astronomy should not be confused with [[astrology]], which is not a science. ==Early astronomy== The early [[astronomer]]s were [[trader]]s and [[sailor]]s who needed the stars to guide them at night. [[Farmer]]s, who needed to find out when planting, [[flooding]], or [[harvest]]ing times were coming, looked at the rising and setting of certain [[constellation]]s in the [[sky]]. Ancient people who built things like [[Stonehenge]], and the native [[North America]]n [[medicine wheel]]s, probably studied the sky for religious or [[sacred]] reasons. All these people needed accurate [[knowledge]] of the phases of the [[Moon#Earth.27s_moon|Moon]], the most north and most south [[season]]al [[point]]s of the [[sun]], and other [[information]] for their purposes. Some people called [[astrology|astrologers]] believe they can predict the [[future]] by studying where the planets are in the sky when a person is born. Astrology is not regarded as a science these days. In the past, astrology and astronomy were closely linked, and people kept careful [[record]]s of what they saw. These records have been very important to astronomers during the past two [[century|centuries]], as they were trying to understand the [[Universe]]. == History of astronomy == Early [[humans|people]] studied the stars using only their eyes as [[telescope|telescopes]] and binoculuars had not yet been invented. People saw some of the planets such as [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Venus]], and studied Earth's Moon. People made maps of the stars positions and movements and used these for navigation. Early astronomers thought that the [[Sun]] and the stars went around or [[Orbit|orbited]] the Earth. This was what everyone believed for hundreds of years. But later, during a time called the [[Renaissance]], a man called [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] proved that the Earth moves around the sun. He came up with the idea of a [[Solar System]] where the Earth and planets move around the Sun. made by [[Galileo]]. These were more detailed than any before as he could look at the moon through a [[telescope]].]] His idea was improved on by an important man called [[Galileo Galilei]]. Galileo helped to create the [[telescope]] which made it possible for people to see things much farther away. Galileo got into trouble with the church though because he argued against the idea that [[Earth]] was the center of everything. [[Pope|The Pope]] passed an order that made Galileo stay in his house and publish no [[book]]s for most of his life. After Galileo, people used telescopes more often and began to see further-away objects such as the planets [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]. They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes and other far away objects such as [[nebula]]. Since the 20th century astronomy has progressed a lot. It is now possible to use very big telescopes like the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] to look at stars and [[Galaxy|galaxies]] billions of miles away. Astronomers now use giant transmitters to look at things using [[x rays]] and [[radio]] waves. ==Astronomy Equipment== To study astronomy on a basic level you can just use your [[eyes]]. Looking at something with just your eyes is called using your naked eye. Many stars are too far away to see with your eyes: you need [[binoculars]] or a [[telescope]] to see them. ==Kinds of astronomy== Astronomy has become a very large science in the past few hundred years, and there are many different types of astronomy. [[Lunar astronomers]] study the moon, while [[planetary astronomer]]s study the planets near our [[sun]], and the planets near other stars. Some astronomers study special types of stars, like when [[Binary star|two stars are next to each other]]. Other astronomers study distant [[Galaxy|galaxies]], which are very large groups of many stars. There are also astronomers who never look at the sky at all. These ''[[theoretical]]'' astronomers use [[physics]] and [[mathematics]] in [[combination]] with [[computer]]s to create ''[[Model (abstract)|models]]'' of how the universe behaves, then they compare their [[model]]s to what is observed. They want to understand and predict the events which happen in the universe, and understand how the universe was formed. ==Related topics== *[[Solar system]] *[[Planet]] *[[Moon]] *[[Comet]] *[[Meteor]] *[[Asteroid]] *[[Star]] *[[Black hole]] *[[Galaxy]] *[[Universe]] ==See also== *[[List of astronomical topics]] *[[List of comets]] == Other websites == *[http://www.dustbunny.com/afk/ Astronomy site specifically designed for kids and their parents.] *[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ Astronomy Picture of the Day] *[http://eev2.liu.edu/e3/stargazer/today.htm Astronomy Around the World] *[http://www.planetsurveyor.com Astronomy with sections for beginners and younger people] Architecture uses columns all made in stone.]] how they are built. An [[architect]] must study for many years to become qualified. The purpose of most architecture is [[shelter]]. On a small scale, a garden shed or a stable are examples of simple architecture. On a large scale, architecture may mean the designing of whole towns and cities. In a more general sense, architecture can be the designing of any kind of thing, from a chair to a computer. The word '''architect''' is even starting to be used as a [[verb]]. A person might 'architect' a system. (This is not correct English, but it is an example of how [[language]] changes and develops). ==The Word Architecture== The word architecture seems to suggest something higher, more noble, than simply the designing of a building. A successful building should speak of [[wisdom]] handed down through thousands of years. Sadly that wisdom is very often ignored. Most new [[construction]] is poor in design and materials. People rip out delicate, elegant wooden windows and replace them with crude, heavy white plastic 'units'. They throw away lightweight slates, split by hand from the mountains, which have turned the softest shades of grey, only because the nails holding them on have rusted. They replace them with heavy concrete tiles [[dye]]d red, which make the [[beam]]s of the [[roof]] dip. They build [[shelves]] and [[closet]]s from [[chipboard]] ([[woodpulp]] and glue, pressed tight to make an imitation of wood). These have no [[grain]] like real wood, so they dip and collapse with only a small amount of weight. ==History== In the past, people built [[hut]]s and wood [[house]]s to shelter from the weather. For reasons of cost, the houses were simple and small. For safety, they were often close together. Great [[civilization]]s like the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians built large [[temples]] and structures, like the [[pyramid]]s. The [[Ancient Greek]]s and [[Roman]]s made what we now call [[Classical Architecture]]. The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the [[arch]] from the [[Etruscans]], who copied it from the [[Mesopotamian]]s. The [[stone]] [[column]]s which still hold up so many important buildings, like the [[Parthenon]] in [[Athens]], were simply copied from the first wooden posts. '''Classical Architecture''' is very formal, it always obeyed [[laws]]. It used [[symmetry]], which really means [[balance]], and it used [[proportion]] which means keeping shapes to certain patterns. The [[Golden Mean]] was a rule (or law) which said, (to put it very simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times longer than the short side. There are many laws in Classical Architecture, like how high the middle of an arched [[bridge]] needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from [[centuries]] of experience and they are as true today as they were 2000 years ago. ]] In some parts of the world, like [[India]], the architecture is famous for stone carving on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles were made in [[China]], [[Japan]], Southeast Asia, [[Africa]], [[Mexico]], and Central and [[South America]]. Later, people in Western Europe in the [[Middle Ages]] made [[Romanesque architecture]], then [[Gothic architecture]]. Gothic buildings have tall, pointed [[window]]s and arches. Many [[church]]es have Gothic architecture. [[Castle]]s were also built at this time. In Eastern Europe, churches usually had [[dome]]s. People were copying the Classical Architecture from the past, but adding their own ideas and [[decoration]]. Then in the [[18th Century]] the [[Industrial Revolution]] happened and people began to [[invent]] machines to make things quickly and cheaply. Many [[factory|factories]] and [[mill]]s were built during, or after this revolution. 100 years later, in the [[Victorian]] era, architects like George Fowler Jones and Decimus Burton still followed the Gothic style, to build new churches. But towards the end of the [[19th Century]], architects began to use the newer, cheaper materials like metal [[girders]] and [[reinforced concrete]] to build. An example is the [[Eiffel Tower]] in [[Paris]]. Buildings can now be built taller than ever before. We call them [[skyscrapers]]. This new [[technology]] has made us free from traditional limitations, but it has also made us free from the ancient laws. [[Modernism]], which started as early as [[1890]], has resulted in some handsome, impressive buildings, like the [[Chrysler Building]] in [[New York]], but also some truly horrible buildings. The ancient laws have been forgotten, or ignored, as architects have become more interested in doing something 'original'. It seems incredible that we can make these mistakes, when our [[ancestor]]s built with such skill and beauty. Our wide use of, and dependance on, [[machine]]s has made many of us think like machines. The famous Modernist architect [[Le Corbusier]] once said "A house is a machine for living in". We have come a long way since our first mud huts, but perhaps we have also lost something along the way. ==See also== *[[Architect]] *[[Art]] *[[List of buildings]] *[[List of notable architects]] *[[Skyscraper]] *[[Cathedral architecture]] *[[Structural Engineering]] *[[Acoustics]] *[[Building code]] *[[Sustainable design]] *[[Building materials]] *[[Pattern language]] *[[World Heritage Sites]] Anatomy '''Anatomy''' is the [[study]] of the [[body|bodies]] of living beings ([[human|people]], [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s). It is like taking the body apart, and looking at its parts ([[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, [[muscle]]s and [[bone]]s). People who study ''anatomy'' then look where a certain organ (or bone, or muscle) should be, or where it normally is. == See also == * [[Medicine]] * [[Biology]] * [[Science]] * [[Organ (anatomy)]] Asteroid An '''asteroid''' is like a [[planet]], but smaller. The name "asteroid" means "like a star" in the ancient [[Greek language]]. Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the [[Sun]], while stars only seem to move because the [[Earth]] spins. Like planets, asteroids do not make their own [[light]]. Because of this, some people think "asteroids" is not a good name, and think that the name "planetoid" ("like a planet") would be a better name. Most asteroids are made of [[mineral|rock]], but some are made of [[ice]] or [[metal]]. Most asteroids in our [[Solar System]] are in the [[asteroid belt]] between [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. ==Formation== Asteroids are the leftover rock and other material from the formation of the [[Solar System]]. These rocks were too small to make a planet, and could not collide to form one. ==Discovery== In the 1600s, Gisuppe Piazzi discovered the first asteroid. It was named Ceres, and is the biggest object in the [[asteroid belt]]. Other asteroids, like [[Juno]], [[Pallas]], and [[Vesta]] were discovered later. Today, astronomers know of hundreds of thousands of asteroids, which range from fractions of a mile to 600 miles across. Afghanistan {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname=Afghanistan
[[Persian language|Persian]]: جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان | image_flag=Flag of Afghanistan.svg | image_coa= Afghanistan COA.png | image_location=LocationAfghanistan.png | nationalmotto=n/a | nationalsong="Soroud-e-Melli" | nationalflower=n/a | nationalanimal=n/a | officiallanguages= [[Persian]] ([[Dari]]), [[Pashto]] | populationtotal=28,717,213 | populationrank=38 | populationdensity=43 | countrycapital=[[Kabul]] | countrylargestcity=[[Kabul]] and [[Herat]] | areatotal=647,500 | arearank=40 | areawater=0 | areawaterpercent=0 | establishedin= [[Independence]] from [[Persia]] in [[1747]]| leadertitlename= [[President]] [[Hamid Karzai]] | currency= [[Afghani]] (Af) (AFA)| utcoffset=+04:30 | dialingcode=93 | internettld=.AF }} '''Afghanistan''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: '''جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان''') is a country located in [[South Asia]]. It is bordered by [[Iran]] in the west, [[Pakistan]] in the south and east, [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] in the north, and [[China]] in the northeast.[CIA- The World Factbook, Afghanistan. Retrieved on 31 December 2008 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html]. [[Islam]] is the main [[religion]]. [[Persian]] ([[Dari]]) and [[Pashto]] are the main [[languages]]. The population of Afghanistan is divided into many ethnic groups of which [[Tajiks|Tajik]], [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]], [[Hezara]], [[Uzbek]] and [[Baloch]][CIA- The World Factbook, Afghanistan. Retrieved on 31 December 2008 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html]. Although the name [[Afghan]] (in its original meaning) refers to Pashtuns only, but under the [[constitution]] of Afghanistan, the word Afghan applies to every citizen of Afghanistan[Encyclopedia Iranica, AFḠĀN. Retrieved on 31 December 2008 http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.encyclopediairanica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v2f4/v2f4a051.html]. The name Afghanistan means the "Land of Afghans". ==History== The modern Afghanistan was established in 1747 and in 1919 the king of Afghanistan declared independence for the state (from [[UK]] control over Afghan foreign affairs) under the new name ''Afghanistan''. The history of the land does not begin in 1747. [[Aryan]] ([[Indo-European|Indo-European people]]) tribes settled in the area around 4000 years ago and called their land ''Airiana vaejo'' means the "Land of Aryans"[Encyclopedia Iranica, ĒRĀN-WĒZ. Retrieved on 31 December 2008 http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.encyclopediairanica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v2f4/v2f4a051.html]. This name was mentioned in the [[Avesta]], the old book of their religion, [[Zoroastrianism]]. The old [[Greek]] writers heard the word and called the land of these Aryan settlers ''Ariana''[Encyclopedia Iranica, ARIA. Retrieved on 31 December 2008 http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.encyclopediairanica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v2f4/v2f4a051.html]. By the middle of the sixth century BC, the [[Persians]] who were also Aryans included the area within its boundaries and created [[Persian Empire]]. [[Alexander the great]] conquered Persian Empire by fighting in 330 BC. After him [[Kushans]], [[Parthians]] and [[Sassanians]] took over. The Sassanians who were also Persians called their empire ''Eranshahr'' which later became [[Iran]] means the "Land of Aryans"[Encyclopedia Britannica, ancient Iran. Retrieved on 31 December 2008 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/851961/ancient-Iran]. Iran used to be called [[Persia]] for a long time by people outside of Iran. Other people took Iran by fighting like the [[Arabs]] (7th century), [[Turks]] (10th century) and [[Mongols]] (13th century). The area which is now known as Afghanistan was then called ''[[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]'' and it was a prosperous and important province of Iran, as it was the seat of most rulers. The [[Safavid dynasty]] (1502-1736) made [[Shia Islam]] the religion of their state. Safavids were cruel to Afghans (Pashtuns) who were living in the south eastern parts of Khorasan and their religion was different, it was [[Sunni Islam]]. Afghans then revolted and separated Khorasan from Iran in 1747. The country served as a [[buffer state|buffer]] between the [[British empire|British]] and [[Russian empire|Russian]] empires until it won independence from British control in 1919. ==Wars in Afghanistan== In 1979 [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet Union attacked and occupied Afghanistan]]. The occupation resulted in the killings of at least 600,000 to 2 million Afghan civilians and many more [[refugee|refugees]]. After the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, a series of [[civil war|civil wars]] continued. In 1996, Afghanistan was seized by a hardline movement called the [[Taliban]]. Taliban were emerged in 1994 and were sponsored by [[Pakistan]]. During the Taliban's rule, much of the Afghans experienced restrictions on their freedom and violations of their [[human rights]]. The civil wars and Taliban rule left Afghanistan in ruins. Following the [[September 11 attacks]], the [[United States]] overthrew the Taliban government for refusing to hand over [[Osama bin Laden]] and several [[al-Qaida]] members, who were behind these attacks. In December 2004, [[Hamid Karzai]] became the first [[democracy|democratically]] elected president of Afghanistan[CIA- The World Factbook, Afghanistan. Retrieved on 31 December 2008 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html]. == References == Angola {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname=Republic of Angola | image_flag=Flag of Angola.svg | image_coa=Coat_of_arms_of_Angola.svg | image_location=LocationAngola.png | nationalmotto=Virtus Unita Fortior
([[Latin]]: Unity Provides Strength) | nationalsong=[[Angola Avante|Angola Avante!]]
([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: [[Angola Avante|Forward Angola!]]) | officiallanguages=[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] | populationtotal=10,978,552 (estimated)| populationrank=72 | populationdensity=8.6 | countrycapital=[[Luanda]] | countrylargestcity=[[Luanda]] | areatotal=1,246,700 | arearank=22 | areawater=n/a | areawaterpercent=n/a | establishedin=Independence from [[Portugal]]
on [[November 11]], [[1975]] | leadertitlename=[[President of Angola|President]] [[José Eduardo dos Santos]]
[[Prime Minister of Angola|Prime Minister]] [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]] | currency=[[Kwanza]] | utcoffset=+01:00 | dialingcode=244 | internettld=.AO }} '''Angola''' is a country in [[Africa]]. The [[capital (city)|capital]] is [[Luanda]]. Angola is situated in the south of the [[continent]]. Argentina {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname=República Argentina | image_flag=Flag of Argentina.svg | image_coa=Coat_of_arms_of_Argentina.svg | image_location=LocationArgentina.png | nationalmotto=[[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''En Unión y Libertad''
([[English language|English]]: "In Union and Liberty")| nationalsong = ''[[Argentine National Anthem|Himno Nacional Argentino]]'' | officiallanguages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]| countrycapital = [[Buenos Aires]] | countrylargestcity = [[Buenos Aires]] | establishedin= 1816 | leadertitlename = [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]] | areatotal=2,791,810¤| arearank=8 | areawater=30,000 | areawaterpercent=1.1 | areami² = 1,077,924¤| populationtotal = 39,921,833| populationrank=30 | populationdensity=13 | population_estimate_year = 2006 | currency = [[Argentine peso|Peso]] | utcoffset=-03:00 | dialingcode=54 | internettld=.ar }} '''Argentina''' or the '''República Argentina''', is a country in south [[South America]]. Argentina is the second-largest [[country]] in [[South America]] and the eighth-largest country in the world. About 39 million people live in the Argentina. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is the language most people speak and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. Some of these are [[Guarani]], [[Mapudungun]] and [[Quechua]] and even [[Welsh language|Welsh]] in Patagonia. The [[capital (city)|capital city]] of the Argentina is [[Buenos Aires]], one of the largest cities in the world, in eastern Argentina. In order by number of people, the largest [[city|cities]] in Argentina are [[Buenos Aires]], [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]], [[Rosario]], [[Mendoza]], [[La Plata]], [[Tucumán]], [[Mar del Plata]], [[Salta]], [[Santa Fe, Argentina|Santa Fe]], and [[Bahía Blanca]]. Argentina is located between the [[Andes]] [[mountain range]] in the west and the southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and south. It is bordered by [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]] in the north, [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]] in the northeast, and [[Chile]] in the west and south. It also claims the the [[Falkland Islands]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Islas Malvinas'') and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. ==History== The name '''Argentina''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''argentum'' ([[silver]]) as the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]s believed the area had [[silver]]. In the Americas, Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order). The oldest signs of people in Argentina are located in the [[Patagonia]] (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old.[http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedra_Museo Piedra Museo] In 1480 the [[Inca Empire]] conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the [[Guaraní]] developed a culture based on [[yuca]] and [[sweet potato]] however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef. Other languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentineans are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent. ==Politics== Argentina is a [[federal republic]]. The people of Argentina vote for a [[President]] to rule them and [[Senator]]s and [[Deputy|Deputies]] to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is [[Cristina Fernández de Kirchner]] since December 2007. ==Administrative divisions== singular: ''provincia''), and 1 [[autonomous city]] (commonly known as ''capital federal''): {| | # [[Buenos Aires|Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires]]* # [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires (Province)]] # [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]] # [[Chaco Province|Chaco]] # [[Chubut Province|Chubut]] # [[Córdoba Province (Argentina)|Córdoba]] # [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]] # [[Entre Ríos Province|Entre Ríos]] # [[Formosa Province|Formosa]] # [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]] # [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]] # [[La Rioja Province (Argentina)|La Rioja]] |
  1. [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]]
  2. [[Misiones Province|Misiones]]
  3. [[Neuquén Province|Neuquén]]
  4. [[Río Negro Province|Río Negro]]
  5. [[Salta Province|Salta]]
  6. [[San Juan Province (Argentina)|San Juan]]
  7. [[San Luis Province|San Luis]]
  8. [[Santa Cruz Province (Argentina)|Santa Cruz]]
  9. [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]]
  10. [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]]
  11. [[Tierra del Fuego Province (Argentina)|Tierra del Fuego]]
  12. [[Tucumán Province|Tucumán]]
|} ==Geography== and the [[Andes]] [[mountain range]] along the western border with [[Chile]], with the highest point located in the province of [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]]. [[Cerro Aconcagua]], at 6,960 metres (22,834 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), is the [[Americas|Americas']] highest mountain. The most important rivers include the [[Rio de la Plata|River Plate]], [[Paraguay River|Paraguay]], [[Bermejo River|Bermejo]], [[Colorado River (Argentina)|Colorado]], [[Uruguay River|Uruguay]] and the largest river, the [[Paraná River|Paraná]]. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team. ==Other information== The majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Ireland]], [[France]], other Europeans countries and [[Mestizo]] representing more than 90% of the total population of the country.[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html] [[Football in Argentina|Football]] or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is [[Pato]]. Argentina has a number of highly-ranked [[Polo]] players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites. Argentina is a [[Christian]] country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are [[Roman Catholic]]. Roman Catholicism is the state religion but Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Many Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well. Medicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well. ==References==
* [http://www.mapsofworld.com/argentina/index.html General information and maps] * [http://www.argentinatravelnet.com Geography and tourism] * [http://www.guiafe.com.ar/argentina-pictures Pictures from Argentina grouped by provincia]
== Other websites ==
===Government=== * [http://www.argentina.gov.ar Argentina.gov.ar] - Official national portal * [http://www.info.gov.ar Gobierno Electrónico] - Official government website * [http://www.presidencia.gov.ar Presidencia de la Nación] - Official presidential website * [http://www.senado.gov.ar Honorable Senado de la Nación] - Official senatorial website * [http://www.diputados.gov.ar Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación] - Official lower house website * [http://www.turismo.gov.ar Secretaría de Turismo de la Nación] - Official tourism board website Austria {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname= Republik Österreich| image_flag= Flag of Austria.svg | image_coa= Austria Bundesadler.svg | image_location= Europe location AUT.png | nationalmotto= | nationalsong= "[[Land der Berge, Land am Strome]]" | nationalflower= n/a | nationalanimal= n/a | officiallanguages= German | populationtotal= 8.150.835 ab. (2000) | populationrank= 86° | populationdensity= 97 | countrycapital= [[Vienna]] | countrylargestcity= Vienna | areatotal= 83.858 km² | arearank= 112° | areawater= 1,3 | areawaterpercent= n/a | establishedin= [[July 27]], [[1955]] | leadertitlename= [[President]]: [[Heinz Fischer]] | currency= Euro | utcoffset= +1 | dialingcode= +43 | internettld=.at }} '''Austria''' ([[German language|German]]: '''Österreich'''), officially "Republic of Austria", is a country in [[Central Europe]]. Around Austria there are [[Germany]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Slovenia]], [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Liechtenstein]]. Currently, the chancellor is [[Werner Faymann]]. Austria has been a [[state|member-state]] of the [[European Union|EU]] since [[1995]]. The people in Austria speak [[German language|German]], a few also [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]]. The capital of Austria is [[Vienna]] (Wien). Austria is more than thousand years old. Its history can be followed to the [[ninth century]]. At that time the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name "Ostarrichi" is first written in an official document from [[996]]. Since then this word has developed into the Modern German word ''Österreich''. Austria is a democratic state and has nine federal states (): [[Vorarlberg]], the [[Tyrol]], [[Salzburg]], [[Carinthia]], [[Styria]], [[Upper Austria]], [[Lower Austria]], [[Vienna]] and [[Burgenland]]. It is a [[neutral]] state, that means it does not take part in wars with other countries. Austria is in the [[United Nations]] since 1955 and in the [[European Union]] since 1995. ==History== ===Ancient times=== There has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic age, they time of the [[Neanderthal]]s. They left works of art, such as the [[Venus of Willendorf]]. In the Neolithic age, people were living there to dig for resources, especially [[copper]]. [[Ötzi]], a [[mummy]] found in a [[glacier]] between Austria and Italy, is from that time. In the [[Bronze Age]] bigger settlements and fortresses were built, especially where there were resources. [[Salt mine|Salt mining]] began near [[Hallstatt]]. At that time, [[Celt]]s began to form the first states. ===The Romans=== The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] settled in most of modern Austria. They built larger cities. The most important of these were [[Carnuntum]] (near Vienna), [[Virunum]] (north of [[Klagenfurt]]) and [[Teurnia]] (near [[Spittal an der Drau]]). ===Modern times=== Austria was an empire from about 800 to [[1918]]. And was ruled by The House of [[Habsburg]] for most of that period. Then it became a [[republic]]. The ''First Republic'' was from 1918 to 1938, the ''Second Republic'' has been from 1945. From 1938 to 1945 Austria was part of Germany. ==Geography== Austria is a largely [[mountain]]ous country since it is in the [[Alps]]. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country. ==Culture== === Music and Arts === Many famous composers were Austrians or born in Austria. There are [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Haydn|Joseph Haydn]], [[Franz Schubert]], [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johann Strauss, Sr.]], [[Johann Strauss, Jr.]] and [[Gustav Mahler]]. In modern times there were [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Anton Webern]] and [[Alban Berg]], who belonged to the [[Second Viennese School]] . Austria has many [[artist]]s, there are [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]] or [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], [[Inge Morath]] or [[Otto Wagner]] and scienc. === Food === Famous Austrian dishes are [[Wiener Schnitzel]], [[Schweinsbraten]], [[Kaiserschmarren]], [[Knödel]], [[Sachertorte]] and [[Tafelspitz]]. == Famous Austrians == * Scientists **[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] **[[Ernst Mach]] **[[Christian Doppler]] **[[Lise Meitner]] **[[Erwin Schrödinger]] **[[Wolfgang Pauli]] **[[Anton Zeilinger]] **[[Theodore Billroth]] **[[Sigmund Freud]] **[[Alfred Adler]] * Sports and Entertainment ** [[Hermann Maier]] ** [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] ** [[Falco]] ** [[Franz Joseph Haydn]] Armenia {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname= Republic of Armenia
Hayastani Hanrapetutyun | image_flag= Flag of Armenia.svg | image_coa= Armenia_coa.png | image_location=LocationArmenia.png | nationalmotto=One Nation, One Culture | nationalsong=Our Fatherland | nationalflower=n/a | nationalanimal=n/a | officiallanguages= [[Armenian language|Armenian]] | populationtotal=3,016,000 | populationrank=136 | populationdensity=73 | countrycapital=[[Yerevan]] | countrylargestcity=[[Yerevan]] | areatotal= 29,800 | arearank= 139 | areawater= n/a | areawaterpercent=n/a | establishedin= [[September 21]], [[1991]] | leadertitlename=[[President of Armenia|President]]: [[Robert Kocharian]]
[[Prime Minister of Armenia|Prime Minister]]: Serzh Sargsyan | currency= [[Dram]] (AMD) | utcoffset=+05:00 | dialingcode=374 | internettld=.am }} '''Armenia''' is a country in the [[Caucasus]] region of [[Europe]]. Its [[capital (city)|capital city]] is [[Yerevan]]. Armenia received its independence from the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1991]]. Armenia touches [[Turkey]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Iran]]. There are some minorities living in Armenia, such as [[Greece|Greek]], [[Russia]]n, and other minorities, and more than 90% of the people are ethnic [[Armenians]]. Also, the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], is by far the largest religion in the country. There are a small amount of other [[Christians]], [[Muslims]] and [[atheists]]. Armenia is the place that some Christians believe [[Noah's Ark]] landed, and Noah's family settled. The Armenian name for Armenia (Hayastan) means Land of Haik. Haik was the name of a great-great-grandson of Noah. Throughout history, Armenia's size has changed many times. Today Armenia is much smaller than it was once. In 80 BC, the Kingdom of Armenia covered parts of what is today Turkey, [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], Azerbaijan, and, of course, Armenia. From [[1920]] to [[1991]], Armenia was a [[Communist]] country. (Communism is a political idea.) It was a member of the [[Soviet Union]]. Today, Armenia's borders are locked with [[Turkey]] and [[Azerbaijan]], due to conflicts. In 1992, Armenia and Azerbaijan had a war over the land of [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]. The fighting stopped in 1994, and Armenia has had control over this land, but Azerbaijan still disputes about the land. == Other websites == *[http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Main_Page Armeniapedia] *[http://www.armenianhighland.com History of Armenia] *[http://www.armenica.org Armenia.org - Complete history of Armenia, covering 800B.C. to 2004] *[http://www.panarmenian.net PanARMENIAN.Net - Daily Armenian News] *[http://www.armenianow.com/ ArmeniaNow.com - Weekly articles and reports] *[http://www.hetq.am/eng/ Hetq.am - Weekly articles and reports] *[http://www.haias.net/ Haias.net - All about Armenia] Archaeology '''Archaeology''' is the study of the [[past]] by looking for the remains and [[relics]] ([[history|historical things]]) left by the people who lived before us. These are called "[[artifact]]s", and can include old [[coin]]s, [[tool]]s, [[building]]s and [[garbage]] (rubbish). Archaeologists try to work out what these remains mean. To find these remains, archaeologists often have to dig deep in the ground. This is called fieldwork. When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to the place where the archaeologist is based, perhaps a [[University]] or [[museum]]. Every piece of information is written down or put into a computer, so that a picture can be built up. As [[settlement]]s (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, what went before is often buried. Ancient [[Rome]], for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This is why archaeology is expensive and why it takes so long. Sometimes archaeologists find the bones of dead people and the things they used, or the houses they lived in. Archaeologists think it is important to understand the past, because so many people use the past to know where they come from. others study [[Ancient Greece]], or the [[Vikings]]. Archaeologists study every [[civilization]] that is known, especially the ones where there is no [[history]] to read. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or one might study [[World War II]]. Some archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for [[shipwreck|sunken ship]]s or [[city|cities]] that have been lost under the sea. [[Stonehenge]], in [[England]] is a famous archaeological site, or place. Other famous sites include [[Angkor Wat]], [[Machu Picchu]], and [[Great Zimbabwe]]. In many countries, [[government]]s and other groups of people protect important sites so that they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them. Sometimes archaeological sites are found when [[foundation]]s are dug for new [[building]]s. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people building are always in a hurry. Quite often as soon as the archaeologists have finished their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are of very great importance. == Other websites == [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology Wikipedia: Archaeology] Application The word '''application''' has several uses. ==Medicine== In [[medicine]], '''application''' means putting some [[drug]] or [[ointment]] usually on the [[skin]] where it is absorbed into the [[human body]]. ==Computers== Writer]] When dealing with '''[[computer]]s''', an application is a type of [[computer program]]. At the direction of some user, perhaps set up once and executed many times, this performs a well-defined [[mathematics|mathematical]] or [[communication]]s function, or retrieves [[information]], or or [[edit]]s a . How well this works depends not only on the [[code]] of the program, but also on the [[operating system]] and physical attributes of the computer such as how fast its [[processor]] is and how much [[memory]] is available. Physically, the [[bit]]s making up the application can be on the [[boot device]] or a [[data device]], or a device of their own. Usually, some basic applications like a [[text editor]], [[file browser]] and [[telnet]] do go on the boot device to be sure that they are always available even if only the boot is accessed. If the bits are on a non-boot device, they may not always be found when required. In the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system, the may be asked to find the application that is used to run a specific file. Common types of applications available free of charge include [[web browser]]s, [[email]] programs, [[media player]]s, and [[instant messaging]] software. ==Business== In [[business]] or [[government]], an application is a (usually [[paper]]) [[form]] filled out and handed in by a person seeking a from a [[state]] or [[company]], such as [[work]], [[credit]], some type of [[license]] or [[permit]], or a [[house|place to live]]. ==Engineering== At work, generally [[engineering]], when dealing with certain [[material]]s or , an "application" is a that material or object can be used for. [[Wood]] and [[steel]] have many applications. Animalia {{Taxobox | color = # | name = Animals | fossil_range = [[Ediacaran]] - Recent | image = Animalia diversity.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Clockwise from top-left: ''[[European Squid|Loligo vulgaris]]'' (a [[Mollusca|mollusk]]), ''[[sea nettle|Chrysaora quinquecirrha]]'' (a [[cnidaria]]n), ''[[Aphthona flava]]'' (an [[arthropod]]), ''[[Nereis|Eunereis longissima]]'' (an [[annelid]]), and ''[[tiger|Panthera tigris]]'' (a [[chordate]]). | domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]] | unranked_regnum = [[Opisthokont]]a | regnum = '''Animalia''' | regnum_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[Systema Naturae|1758]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Phylum|Phyla]] | subdivision = * '''''Subkingdom [[Parazoa]] ** [[Sponge|Porifera]] * '''''Subkingdom [[Eumetazoa]] **[[Trichoplax|Placozoa]] ** '''''[[Radiata]] (unranked)''''' *** [[Ctenophora]] *** [[Cnidaria]] ** '''''[[Bilateria]] (unranked)''''' *** [[Orthonectida]] *** [[Rhombozoa]] *** [[Acoelomorpha]] *** [[Chaetognatha]] *** '''Superphylum [[Deuterostome|Deuterostomia]]''' **** [[Chordate|Chordata]] **** [[Hemichordata]] **** [[Echinoderm]]ata **** [[Xenoturbellida]] **** [[Vetulicolia]] [[extinction|†]] *** '''''[[Protostomia]] (unranked)''''' **** '''Superphylum [[Ecdysozoa]]''' ***** [[Kinorhyncha]] ***** [[Loricifera]] ***** [[Priapulida]] ***** [[Nematoda]] ***** [[Nematomorpha]] ***** [[Lobopodia]] [[extinction|†]] ***** [[Onychophora]] ***** [[Tardigrada]] ***** [[Arthropoda]] **** '''Superphylum [[Platyzoa]]''' ***** [[Platyhelminthes]] ***** [[Gastrotricha]] ***** [[Rotifera]] ***** [[Acanthocephala]] ***** [[Gnathostomulida]] ***** [[Micrognathozoa]] ***** [[Cycliophora]] **** '''Superphylum [[Lophotrochozoa]]''' ***** [[Sipuncula]] ***** [[Hyolitha]] [[extinction|†]] ***** [[Nemertea]] ***** [[Phoronida]] ***** [[Bryozoa]] ***** [[Entoprocta]] ***** [[Brachiopoda]] ***** [[Mollusca]] ***** [[Annelida]] ***** [[Echiura]] }} '''Animalia''' is the name of the '''animal kingdom'''. It is a [[kingdom]] which contains all [[animals]]. Animals are living things which do not make use of [[light]] to get [[energy]] and building materials (like plants do) to grow. They eat [[plant]]s or other animals. Most higher animals can also move around, which is another difference with [[plant]]s. Animals are divided into groups as well. ==Grouping animals== When scientists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They can then group the animals, according to some of these things. One classification is that some animals have a [[backbone]], and others do not. The animals with a backbone are called [[vertebrate]]s, those without one are called [[invertebrate]]s. Examples of invertebrates are [[bee]]s, [[dragonfly|dragonflies]], [[jellyfish]], etc. Some vertebrates are: *[[fish]] (even if they are several animals, they are still called fish) *[[amphibian]]s *[[reptile]]s *[[bird]]s *[[mammal]]s Some invertebrates are: *[[insect]]s *[[spider]]s *[[mollusc]]s (like [[squid]]) *[[worm]]s *[[jellyfish]] The problem with this classification though is that most animals are invertebrates. Therefore, other classifications are used more often, today. The vertebrate [[phylum]] is more commonly known as [[chordata]]. There are many other phylums, and every other one of them contain invertebrates. Animal {{Taxobox | color = ugly | name = Animals | image = Animalia diversity.jpg | image_width = 250px | image_caption = Diverse animals | domain = [[Eukaryota]] | regnum = '''[[Animalia]]''' | subdivision_ranks = [[Phyla]] | subdivision = * '''''Subkingdom''''' [[Parazoa]] ** [[Porifera]] * '''''Subkingdom''''' [[Eumetazoa]] ** [[Placozoa]] ** '''''[[Radiata]]''''' '''''(unranked)''''' *** [[Ctenophora]] *** [[Cnidaria]] ** '''''[[Bilateria]]''''' '''''(unranked)''''' *** [[Orthonectida]] *** [[Rhombozoa]] *** [[Acoelomorpha]] *** [[Myxozoa]] *** [[Chaetognatha]] *** '''Superphylum''' '''[[Deuterostomia]]''' **** [[Chordata]] ([[mammals]], [[fish]]) **** [[Hemichordata]] **** [[Echinodermata]] **** [[Xenoturbellida]] [[extinction|†]] *** '''''[[Protostomia]]''''' '''''(unranked)''''' **** [[Kinorhyncha]] **** [[Loricifera]] **** [[Priapulida]] **** [[Nematoda]] **** [[Nematomorpha]] **** [[Onychophora]] **** [[Tardigrada]] **** [[Arthropoda]] *** '''Superphylum''' '''[[Platyzoa]]''' **** [[Platyhelminthes]] **** [[Gastrotricha]] **** [[Rotifera]] **** [[Acanthocephala]] **** [[Gnathostomulida]] **** [[Micrognathozoa]] **** [[Cycliophora]] *** '''Superphylum''' '''[[Lophotrochozoa]]''' **** [[Sipuncula]] **** [[Nemertea]] **** [[Phoronida]] **** [[Bryozoa]] **** [[Entoprocta]] **** [[Brachiopoda]] **** [[Mollusca]] **** [[Annelida]] **** [[Echiura]] }} '''Animals''' are [[life|living]] things. Animals are not [[plant]]s so they can't make their own [[food]] or [[energy]] by themselves. Animals have to eat other living things (animals, plants, [[fungi]], etc.) to get energy to live. Many animals live in this world. Some are big and some are small. Some live in water, others live on the ground and some animals can fly. Being able to move from one place to another is another distinctive characteristic of an animal. see [[animalia]]. Their mode of nutrition is known as heterotrophic nutrition because they eat other living organisms as food in order to survive. There are animals living in solitary and groups. Examples of animals living in solitary are tigers, rhinoceros, cheetahs and more. Examples of animals living in groups are coyotes, bees, monkeys and more. Animals living in solitary do not have to share food with each other. Animals living in groups have better protection against becoming the prey of others. Bees and ants are grouped in a special group called a colony. In a colony, the animals work together in a special way and usually have a leader. The leader of the bees is called the Queen Bee. The animal kingdom is very diverse. There are many types of animals. But, the common animals you know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. There are many other animals, such as [[insects]] and [[sponge]]s! Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups, the [[invertebrate]]s, and the [[vertebrate]]s. The vertebrates are animals with a [[backbone]], or [[spine]], and the invertebrates without. Invertebrastes include [[insects]], [[crustaceans]], [[molluscs]], [[coral]]s, [[worm]]s, and much more. The vertebrates are divided into 5 groups, [[fish]], [[birds]], [[amphibians]], [[reptiles]] and [[mammals]]. Animals breathe Oxygen to live. Below are some [http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/collective/?view=uk common collective nouns] for groups of animals: :A '''herd''' of horses, buffalos, cows (mainly for herbivores) :A '''pack''' of wolves, wild dogs (mainly for carnivorous animals living in groups) :A '''flock''' of birds :A '''colony''' of ants, bees :A '''smack''' of jellyfish :A '''swarm''' of locust (or other insects that fly together in large numbers) :A '''school''' or '''shoal''' of fish or other water dwelling creatures :A '''skulk''' of foxes Acceleration '''Acceleration''' is a [[measure]] of how [[speed|fast]] [[velocity]] . Acceleration is the change of velocity [[divide]]d by the change of [[time]]. Acceleration is a [[vector]], and therefore includes both a [[size]] and a [[direction]]. ===Examples=== * An object moving [[north]] at 10 meters per second. The object speeds up and now is moving north at 15 [[meter]]s per [[second]]. The object has accelerated. * An [[apple]] falls down. It starts falling at 0 meters per second. At the end of the first second, the apple is moving at 9.8 meters per second. The apple has accelerated. At the end of the second second, the apple is moving down at 19.6 meters per second. The apple has accelerated again. * Jane walks [[east]] at 3 [[kilometer]]s per [[hour]]. Jane's velocity does not change. Jane's acceleration is [[zero]]. * Tom walks [[east]] at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom turns and walks [[south]] at 3 kilometers per hour. Tom has had a nonzero acceleration. * Sally walks [[east]] at 3 kilometers per hour. Sally slows down. After, Sally walks [[east]] at 1.5 kilometers per hour. Sally has had a nonzero acceleration. ==Finding acceleration== Acceleration is the [[rate]] of change of the [[velocity]] of an object. Acceleration \mathbf can be found by using:
: \mathbf = {\mathbf{v_1} - \mathbf{v_0} \over { t_1 - t_0 }} where :\mathbf{v_0} is the velocity at the start :\mathbf{v_1} is the velocity at the end :t_0 is the time at the start :t_1 is the time at the end Sometimes the change in velocity \mathbf{v_1} - \mathbf{v_0} is written as Δ\mathbf{v}. Sometimes the change in time { t_1 - t_0 } is written as Δt. ===Units of measurement=== Acceleration has its own [[units of measurement]]. For example, if velocity is measured in meters per second, and if time is measured in seconds, then acceleration is measured in meters per second squared (m/s2). ===Other words=== Acceleration can be [[positive]] or [[negative]]. Positive acceleration is called acceleration, or speeding up. Negative acceleration is called deceleration, or slowing down. ==Newton's second law of motion== There are [[rule]]s for how things [[move]]. These rules are called "[[law]]s of [[motion (physics)|motion]]". [[Isaac Newton]] is the [[scientist]] who made the main laws of motion. According to [[Newton's laws of motion#Second Law|Newton's Second Law of Motion]], acceleration \mathbf{a} is [[connect]]ed to [[force]] \mathbf{F}, and [[mass]] m. D'Alembert have also proven that "F-ma=0 That means whatever may be the force acting on a body same amount of deaccelerating force is acting in it. Acceleration is part of [[physics]]. Using [[calculus]], acceleration is the [[derivative]], or rate of change, of velocity. The [[force]] something needs to accelerate an object depends on the object's [[mass]]: the amount of "stuff" the object is made from. Basic English '''Basic English''' is a [[constructed language|made-up language]] written by [[Charles Kay Ogden]]. The [[idea]] of '''Basic English''' is to use easy words to explain harder . '''Basic English''' ("'''B'''ritish '''A'''merican '''S'''cientific '''I'''nternational '''C'''ommercial") has 850 basic words. From the 850 words, 600 are [[noun|names of things]]. Most of the words can be learned using pictures. 150 are words to describe things ([[adjective]]s) and to describe verbs ([[adverb]]s). The last 100 words are [[verb]]s and [[conjunction]]s. Verbs are words that show actions, and conjunctions are words that help put [[sentence]]s together. == Rules of word use == The [[grammar|word use]] of Basic English is like full English, but the rules are much simpler, and there are fewer . Not all meanings of each word are allowed. Ogden's rules of [[grammar]] for Basic English help people use the 850 words to talk about things and events in a normal way. #Make plurals with an "S" on the end of the word. If there are special ways to make a plural word, such as "ES" and "IES", use them. #There are two word endings to change each of the 600 nouns: -"ER" and -"ING" #There are two word endings to change the adjective word endings, -"ING" and -"ED". #Make qualifiers from adverbs by adding -"LY". #Talk about amounts with "MORE" and "MOST." Use and know -"ER" and -"EST." #Make opposite adjectives with "UN"- #Make questions with the opposite word order, and with "DO". #Operators and pronouns conjugate as in normal English. #Make (=[[compound word|compound]]s) from two nouns (for example "milkman") or a noun and a directive (sundown). #Measures, numbers, money, days, months, years, clock time, and international words are in English forms. E.g. Date/Time: 20 May 1972 at 21:00 #Use the words of an industry or science. For example, in this grammar, some special words are for teaching languages, and not part of Basic English: [[plural]], [[conjugate]], [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], [[qualifier]], [[operator]], [[pronoun]], and [[directive]]. == References == * [[C. K. Ogden|Ogden, C. K.]] (1940). ''General Basic English Dictionary''. London: Evans Brothers Limited. ISBN 0874713625. == See also == ]] * "BE 850" - Basic English 850 word list ** ** *** - 200 Picturable words * * * "BE 1500" - * Related resources ** [[E Prime]] - a changed type of English, without the verb 'to be' ** [[List of simple adjectives]] == Other websites == * [http://ogden.basic-english.org Ogden's Basic English] * [http://www.online-utility.org/english/simple_basic_helper.jsp Basic English Utility] Black pudding '''Black pudding''' is an English name for blood sausage. It is [[food]] made by [[cooking]] down the [[blood]] of any [[mammal]] (usually [[pig]]s or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to [[congealing|congeal]] (become firm or solid) when cooled. ==Types of Black pudding== In [[England]] blood sausage is called ''Black Pudding''. The ingredients include pig's blood, [[suet]], [[bread]], [[barley]] and [[oats|oatmeal]]. The most common kind of German ''blutwurst'' is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm. Other kinds of blood sausage include ''boudin noir'' (France), ''boudin rouge'' ([[Creole]] and [[Cajun]]) and ''morcilla'' (Spain). ==History== A [[legend]] says that blood sausage was invented in a [[gambling|bet]] between two [[Bavarian]] [[butcher]]s drunk on the alcoholic drink [[absinthe]] during the [[14th century]]. [[Homer]]'s ''Odyssey'' from Ancient [[Greece]] says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...". == See also == *[[Sausage]] Boot device A '''boot device''' makes a [[computer]] work. It is named after a [[boot]] which fits on the [[foot]]. The word [[bootstrap]] is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. Devices that can boot a computer are usually '''boot disks''' or '''boot drives''' (normally a [[hard drive]], but can be a [[floppy disk]] or a [[compact disk|CD]]). Some [[network computer]]s use ''boot chips'' that get the [[operating system]] over a [[network]]. [[Web phone]]s also use such chips to identify the user to the [[cell network]]. '''Boot card''' standards may let many users boot [[kiosk computer]]s with full [[privacy]] and access to all [[applications]] they own. There are also '''boot boards''' or '''boot ''add-in'' cards''' that are more permanent than boot cards. Some people refer to the boot device as just a '''boot''' and non-boot devices as '''data device'''s, although it is not the [[computer]] but the [[operating system]] that cares about the difference between these. ==Origin== The boot in '''boot device''' is the same as [[booting]] (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it. ==See also== *[[Booting]] Boot A '''boot''' is a type of [[footwear]] that protects the [[foot]] and [[ankle]]. Boots are higher and larger than [[shoe]]s and [[sandal]]s. Some boots are high enough to protect the [[leg|calves]] (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with ''bootstraps'' or ''bootlaces''. Some also have '''spats''' or ''gaiters'' to keep water out. Most have a very strong ''boot sole'', the bottom part of a boot. ==Types of boots== *'''Rain boots''' (or rubber boots) are made from [[rubber]] or [[plastic]]. Rain boots protect a person's feet from [[water]] and [[rain]]. People who work on [[fishing]] boats and [[farmer]]s wear rubber boots to keep their feet dry. People who work in [[chemical industry|chemical]] factories wear rubber boots to protect their feet from dangerous chemicals. *'''Winter boots''' are boots that keep a person's feet warm in cold weather. People in cold countries such as [[Canada]] and [[Sweden]] wear winter boots during the cold season. Winter boots can be made from many different materials, such as [[leather]], [[fabric]], or [[plastic]]. Winter boots are [[thermal insulation|insulated]] with wool or fur to keep the feet warm. Most winter boots also keep people's feet dry. *'''Work boots''' (or "[[construction]] boots") are designed for people who work in construction or [[factory]] jobs. Work boots often have a steel toe cover to protect the person's toes. Work boots are usually made of strong leather, to protect the person's foot from sharp objects or dangerous chemicals. Some work boots have a flat piece of [[steel]] in the sole to protect the foot from sharp [[nail]]s. Many countries require construction workers to wear work boots when they are on a construction site. ==Other meanings== People in English-speaking countries refer to boots in a figurative or [[joke|joking]] manner when they tell someone "to lift yourself up by your own bootstraps". This is a joke because it is impossible for someone to lift themselves up by their own bootstraps. What the person is really saying is "figure out your problem yourself" or "find your own way to better your situation." As well, people sometimes use the term '''to bootstrap'''. This is an [[idiom]] meaning "to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better." The word [[Booting|"boot"]] is also used to describe how a [[computer]] starts up when a person presses the "on" button. Another term "To boot" is an [[idiom]] meaning . For example, people say "he had a beer, and a whiskey to boot." This means that the person had a beer, and also had a glass of whiskey. Another [[slang]] use of the word "boot" is to say "Fred got the boot from the company." This means that Fred got [[unemployment|fired]] from the company. Bankrupt Anything that does not have enough [[money]] to pay all of its [[debt]] is insolvent. If it applies for protection by [[law]] it may then be '''bankrupt'''. In many countries a [[company]] or [[business]] can "file for [[bankruptcy protection]]" so that [[creditor]]s cannot destroy all of the [[physical capital]] and [[goodwill]] by breaking it apart and moving it away. All this provides is more [[time]] to work out a new [[deal]] between the owners and the people the business owes money. An individual person who owes debt and cannot pay it can also "declare bankruptcy". That person will lose all but some basic things they [[own]], but all the debt will go away. Normally they cannot easily borrow money again for years. Very often, a [[creditor]] threatens a [[debtor]] with [[debt slavery]], if the debtor does not know that they have a right to go '''bankrupt'''. This is a [[human rights]] problem in very many countries. ==Other websites== * [http://chapter7answers.com Information about Bankruptcy] Breakfast sausage '''Breakfast sausage''' is a type of fresh [[pork]] [[sausage]] made from [[season|seasoned]] [[ground]] [[meat]] mixed with [[bread]] crumbs. Breakfast sausage has a blander flavor than many other types of sausage, such as Polish or Italian-style sausages. ==Using breakfast sausages== Breakfast sausages are not [[curing|cured]] or [[smoking|smoked]] like other types of sausages, which means that they have to be cooked soon after they are purchased (unless they are frozen). Uncooked sausages should be stored in the [[refrigerator]] or the [[Refrigerator|freezer]]. Individuals handling them should wash their hands in hot [[soap]]y water, because uncooked pork is unhealthy for humans. Pork sausages have to be heated until all of the meat inside is cooked. They are usually [[fry|fried]] or grilled in a pan until they are browned and served at [[breakfast]], often with cooked [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[pancake]]s, and [[toast]]ed bread. Breakfast sausages are also used in other dishes, such as "toads in the hole" a cooked egg dish. ==Types of breakfast sausages== Different types made from pork and [[beef]] mixtures as well as [[poultry]] can now be found. There are also [[vegetarian]] types that use [[tofu|textured vegetable protein]] in place of meat. Breakfast sausages are available in patties or slices from a large roll, or in weiner-like links of different lengths and thickness. Browser #redirect[[Web browser]] Beekeeping '''Beekeeping''' or '''apiculture''' is the [[farming]] of [[honeybee]]s. == Uses == they lay eggs they are known as the "egg layers" of the hive. They are bigger than other types of bees. ==Types of beekeeping== The largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a [[hobby]]. British English '''British English''' is the kind of [[English language]] which is used in the [[United Kingdom]]. == Pronunciation (The Way People Say Things) in British English == In the United Kingdom, many different people say words in different ways. For example: a man from a place near [[London]] may not say his "r"s the same as a man from [[Scotland]] or a man from [[Northern Ireland]]. In fact, people in some places in the United Kingdom have spoken different languages in the past, and some places still speak those languages today. In some places, the way people speak is changed by knowing the other language, such as [[Gaelic]]. Other times, peoples' English accent (the way they sound when they speak English) has been changed by the groups people socialize in. The accent that actors use in television from the [[BBC]] is called [[Received Pronunciation]], sometimes called "The Queen's (or King's) English", or "BBC English". == Spelling in British English == * Some English words ending in "re" end in "er" when written in American English. ''Examples:'' centre becomes center - litre becomes liter - metre becomes meter. * Some English words ending in "our" end in "or" when written in American English. ''Examples:'' colour becomes color - favour becomes favor - honour becomes honor. * Some words spelled with "ph" are instead spelled with an "f". ''Example:'' Sulfur is the American spelling of Sulphur. * Some words in American English use "z" where "s" is used in British English. ''Example:'' colonization is the American spelling of colonisation. * Many of these rules are also used in other countries outside of the [[United Kingdom]], more often in countries that are members in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. == Vocabulary in British English == In British English, "dock" refers to the [[water]] in the space between two "piers" or "wharfs". In American English, the "pier" or "wharf" could be called a "dock", and the water between would be a "slip". Some simpler differences: British - American * accelerator - throttle * [[autumn]] - fall * [[biscuit]] - cookie * bonnet - hood (of a car) * [[boot]] - trunk (of a car) * bum, arse - butt, ass * [[car]] - automobile * caravan - trailer, mobile home * chips - [[French fries]] * courgette - [[zucchini]] * crisps - chips * face flannel - washcloth * [[flat]] - apartment * [[football (soccer)|football]] - soccer * garden - yard * handbag - purse * jumper - sweater * [[lift]] - elevator * lorry - truck * manual gearbox - stick shift * metro, underground, tube - subway * motorway - freeway * mum - mom * nappy - diaper * number plate - license plate * pavement - sidewalk * pram - stroller * petrol - gas or gasoline * post - mail, mailbox * [[railway]] - railroad * [[shift]]ing - moving * shopping trolley - shopping cart * surname - last name * take-away - take-out * tap - faucet * trousers - pants * to let - to rent * torch - flashlight * tram - streetcar ==Other websites== * [http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/BritishVsAmerican British and American English differences] Being :''Being is also a present tense part of [[to be]]'' The word '''being''' means the same as "person". [[man|Men]], [[woman|women]], and [[child]]ren are [[human being]]s. Some people write stories or make [[movie]]s about beings from other [[planet]]s. Most [[religion]]s talk about [[supernatural]] beings, for example [[spirit]]s, [[angel]]s, [[devil]]s, [[deity|god]]s, or [[God]]. Beijing , home to the [[Emperor of China|Emperors]] of the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] Dynasties.]] '''Beijing''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 北京 /Běijīng/) is the [[Capital (city)|capital]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The city used to be known as '''''Peking'''''. It is located in the northern and eastern parts of the country. The city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. In 2008 Beijing will host the [[Olympic Games]]. Beijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the [[Jin dynasty]], Beijing has been the [[Capital (city)|capital]] of several [[dynasties]], including the Yuan, Ming, Qing, and others. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing. These places include the [[Summer Palace]], the Temple of Heaven, and the [[Great Wall of China]]. ==Name== Beijing means "the northern capital" in the [[Chinese]] language. It was once a counterpart of [[Nanjing]], "the southern capital", during the Ming Dynasty. This dynasty gave Beijing its name. ==History== The center of Beijing was settled in the [[1st millennium BC]]. In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (燕) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (蓟). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, the city became smaller, although it was still an important place. Beijing became more important again in the 10th century, when the Jin dynasty set its capital there. This city was destroyed by [[Mongol]] forces in [[1215]]. Then in [[1267]], Mongols built a new city on the north side of the Jin capital, and called it "Great Capital" (大都), which was the beginning of modern Beijing. When Kublai Khan, the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan dynasty, this city became his capital. The Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties all made Beijing their capitals. When the Qing dynasty lost power and the Republic of China was set up, the new Republic moved its capital from Beijing to Nanjing. When the People's Republic of China seized power, Beijing became the capital of China again. ==Education== Beijing is the education center of People's Republic of China. More 500 famous universities of China are located in Beijing. They also include 5 of the top universities: Peking University, Tsinghua University, China People University, Beijing Normal University and Beihang University. Beijing is also education center of China for teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The standard Chinese pronunciation is based on Beijing dialect, so over 70% foreigners who want to study Chinese go to Beijing for their studies. Bottle A '''bottle''' is a small [[container]] used to carry [[liquid]]s. Bottles can be many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of [[glass]] or [[plastic]]. [[Milk]], [[wine]], [[lemonade]] and [[water]] are often put into bottles. == See also == * [[Flask]] * [[Barrell]] * [[Jar]] Berry The word '''berry''' is used for many different kinds of small [[fruit]]s that has many [[seeds]] and can be eaten. Some examples are [[strawberry]], [[raspberry]], [[blueberry]], and [[lingonberry]]. A berry can be either one fruit (like [[strawberry]]) or many fruits joined together like [[raspberry]]). Berries are small, sweet, juicy, bright coloured fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more [[animal]]s towards them and spread their [[seed]]s. In daily life, [[grape]]s, [[currant]]s, [[cranberries]], [[blueberries]], [[gooseberries]], strawberries, blackberries, raspberries and boysenberris, are berries. However, [[botanists]] (people who study plants) say that [[strawberry|strawberries]], [[blackberry|blackberries]], [[raspberry|raspberries]] and [[boysenberry|boysenberries]] are not berries. Instead, they say that [[tomatoes]], [[eggplants]] (brinjals), [[guavas]], [[pomegranates]] and [[chillies]] are berries. [[Pumpkins]], [[cucumbers]], [[melons]], [[orange (fruit)|oranges]] and [[lemons]] are modified (changed) berries. Boil To '''boil''' [[water]] is to make it hot so that it begins to make [[bubble]]s and turns into [[steam]]. Water boils at 100 degrees [[Celsius]] (212 degrees [[Fahrenheit]]). At high s in the [[mountain]]s, water boils at a lower temperature, because of the lower [[atmospheric pressure]] in high places. To boil [[food]] is to [[cook]] it in boiling water. The word "boil" also has a different meaning. A boil can also be an [[infection]] of the [[skin]]. A boil of the skin is a [[red]] place on the skin that is very [[painful]]. The person also may have a [[fever]]. The infection is caused by the [[bacteria]] ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]''. Beard A '''beard''' is the [[hair]] growing on the lower part of a [[man]]'s [[face]]. The hair that grows on the upper [[lip]] of some men is a [[mustache]]. When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a [[soul patch]]. Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men [[shave]] part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long. Some [[animal]]s also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a '''beard'''. Black In light, '''Black''' is lack of all [[color]]. The pigment is the combination of all colors. However, many people refer to it as: "the color black". ==Meaning of black== Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, death, evil, and mystery. Black is a color associated with fear and the unknown (black holes). It can have a negative meaning (blacklist, 'black death') or a positive meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and authority. It can be a [[formal]], elegant, and prestigious color (black tie, black Mercedes). In heraldry, black is the symbol of grief. In [[emo]] and [[goth]] culture, black is a common color for clothing. Bubonic plague The '''Bubonic plague''' is a very deadly [[disease]]. Some of the [[symptom]]s of this disease are [[cough]]ing, [[fever]], and black spots on the [[skin]]. People think that the [[Black Death]] that killed millions of [[Europe]]ans in the [[Middle Ages]] was bubonic plague, but they are not sure. ==Different kinds of the same disease== There are different kinds of Bubonic plague. The most common form of the disease is spread by a certain kind of [[flea]], that lives on [[rat]]s. Then there is an [[incubation period]] which can last from a few hours to about seven days. ===Sepsis=== A [[Sepsis]] happens when the bacterium enters the [[blood]]stream. ===Pneumonic plague=== This happens when the bacterium can enter the lungs. About 95% of all people with this form will die. Incubation period is only one to two days. ===The abortive form=== This is the most harmless form. It will result in a little [[fever]]. After that, there are [[antibody|antibodies]] that protect against all forms for a long time. ==History== with an introduction by Thomas G. Bergin. ISBN 0-451-52866-2 ==Transmission== The plague was not just carried by [[rat]]s as some people assume. The [[flea]]s also carried it. It came abroad from [[Kaffa]] by the [[Black Sea]]. From there the disease started to go new places in [[1347]]. It went to [[England]] in [[1349]]. There it killed '''half''' of the people in England. 70% of people who got plague died. Pigs are also to blame for the transmission, as the bacteria stayed in their blood system, and when eaten, people caught the plague. This is a reason why so few Jews caught the disease. ==Modern history== In the [[20th century]], some countries did [[research]] on the [[bacteria]] that causes bubonic plague. They did research to use it for [[biological warfare]]. Samples of this [[bacteria]] are carefully controlled. There is much [[paranoia]] (fear) about it. Dr. Thomas C. Butler, a [[United States|US]] expert in this [[organism]] was charged in October [[2003]] by the [[FBI]] with various [[crime]]s. This happened after he said he lost samples of ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''. This is the bacteria that causes bubonic plague. The FBI did not find the samples. They do not know what happened to them. ==References== Biology '''Biology''' is the [[science]] of life and living things, like [[plants]], [[animals]], [[fungi]] (such as [[mushroom]]s), and [[bacteria]]. People who study biology are called biologists. Biology asks questions like these: "What are the characteristics of this living thing?" (What makes it different from other living things?) "How should we group this living thing?" "What does this living thing do?" Biology looks at how animals and other organisms behave and work, and what they are like. Biology also studies how [[organism]]s react with each other and the [[environment]]. Biology as a [[science]] has existed for hundreds of years, and it has many [[research]] fields and [[branch]]es. Many of those branches are seen as independent. Like all sciences, biology uses the [[scientific method]]. This means that biologists must be able to show evidence for their ideas, and that other biologists must be able to test the ideas for themselves. ==History== Biology is known widely as a form of magic which was invented by evil Scottish scientist [[David Renfrew]] on a twenty-year long quest to count all the pine needles in the United States. While attempting to find himself, and count such needles, he decided to devise this evil form of magic to torment high school age students. ==Branches of biology == *[[Anatomy]] *[[Arachnology]] *[[Astrobiology]] *[[Botany]] *[[Biochemistry]] *[[Biogeography]] *[[Bioinformatics]] *[[Biophysics]] *[[Cell Biology]] *[[Chronobiology]] *[[Cytology]] *[[Dendrology]] *[[Developmental biology]] *[[Ecology]] *[[Entomology]] *[[Ethology]] *[[Evolutionary biology]] *[[Embryology]] *[[Genetics]] / [[Genomics]] / [[Proteomics]] *[[Herpetology]] *[[Histology]] *[[Human biology]] / [[Anthropology]] / [[Primatology]] *[[Ichthyology]] *[[Limnology]] *[[Malacology]] *[[Mammalogy]] *[[Marine biology]] *[[Microbiology]] / [[Bacteriology]] *[[Molecular biology]] *[[Mycology]] / [[Lichenology]] *[[Nematology]] *[[Neurobiology]] / [[Neurobiology|Neuroscience]] *[[Ornithology]] *[[Palaeontology]] *[[Phycology]] *[[Phylogenetics]] *[[Physiology]] *[[Plant pathology]] *[[Taxonomy]] *[[Virology]] *[[Zoology]] Botany '''Botany''' is a [[science]]. It is a branch of [[biology]], and is also called plant biology. It is sometimes called phytology. Botany is the study of [[plant]]s. Scientists who study botany are called botanists. They want to learn about how plants work. ==Subdisciplines of Botany== *[[Agronomy]]—Application of plant science to crop production *[[Bryology]]—Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts *[[Economic botany]]—The place of plants in economics *[[Ethnobotany]]—Relationship between humans and plants *[[Forestry]]—Forest management and related studies *[[Horticulture]]—Cultivated plants *[[Paleobotany]]—Fossil plants *[[Palynology]]—Pollen and spores *[[Phycology]] - Algae *[[Phytochemistry]]—Plant secondary chemistry and chemical processes *[[Phytopathology]]—Plant diseases *[[Plant anatomy]]—Cell and tissue structure *[[Plant ecology]]—Role of plants in the environment *[[Plant genetics]]—Genetic inheritance in plants *[[Plant morphology]]—Structure and life cycles *[[Plant physiology]]—Life functions of plants *[[Plant taxonomy|Plant systematics]]—Classification and naming of plants ==Notable Botanists== *[[Ibn al-Baitar]] (d. 1248), Andalusian-Arab scientist, botanist, pharmacist, physician, and author of one of the largest botanical encyclopedias. *[[Al-Dinawari]] (828-896), Kurdish botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer, mathematician, and founder of [[Arabic botany]]. *[[Luther Burbank]] (1849-1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science. *[[Joseph Dalton Hooker]] (1817-1911), English botanist and explorer. Second winner of [[Darwin Medal]]. *[[Thomas Henry Huxley]] (1825–1895), English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of evolution. Third winner of [[Darwin Medal]]. *[[Carl Linnaeus]] (1707-1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. *[[Gregor Johann Mendel]] (1822-1884), Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of [[genetics]] for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. a scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, painter, sculptor, architect, botanist, musician and writer. Belgium {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname= Kingdom of Belgium | image_flag= Flag of Belgium (civil).svg | image_coa=Coat_of_arms_of_Belgium.png| image_location= Europe location BEL.png | nationalmotto= Strength lies in unity| nationalsong= [[The Brabançonne]] | officiallanguages= [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]] | populationtotal= 10,445,852 | populationdensity= 342 | populationrank = n/a| countrycapital= [[Brussels]] | countrylargestcity= [[Brussels]] | areatotal= 30,528 | arearank= 148 | areawater=n/a | areawaterpercent=6.4 | establishedin= [[Belgian Revolution]] ([[1830]])| leadertitlename=[[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]]
[[Herman Van Rompuy]] | currency=[[Euro]] (€) | utcoffset=+01:00 | dialingcode=32 | internettld=.be }} '''Belgium''' (''België'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], ''Belgique'' in [[French language|French]] and ''Belgien'' in [[German language|German]]) is a country in [[Europe]]. It is next to [[France]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Germany]], and the [[Netherlands]]. The [[capital city]] of Belgium is [[Brussels]]. There are three regions in Belgium: [[Flanders]] (where the [[Flemish]] speak [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) in the northern half of Belgium, [[Wallonia]] (where most [[Walloon]]s speak [[French language|French]] in the southern half and the [[Brussels]]-Capital Region in the middle (where Dutch and French are spoken). Inside [[Wallonia]] is the area of the [[German-speaking Community of Belgium]]. The community has its own parliament and government, but they are not yet as powerful as the Flemish and Walloon bodies. Belgium is famous for high quality chocolate, [[french fries]], comic books, and many kinds of beer. == Other websites == *[http://www.monarchie.be Official website of Belgian monarchy] *[http://www.belgium.be Official website of the Belgian federal governemt] *[http://www.telefoongids.2link.be Belgian Telephone directory] *[http://www.traveldir.org/belgium/ Belgium Travel Guide] *[http://www.ilotsacre.be/site/en/default_en.htm Brussels map] Brazil {{Infobox Country | fullcountryname = Federal Republic of Brazil
República Federativa do Brasil | image_flag = Flag of Brazil.svg | image_coa = Coat of arms of Brazil.svg | image_location = LocationBrazil.png | nationalmotto = "Ordem e Progresso"
(''Order and progress'') | nationalsong = Brazilian National Anthem | officiallanguages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] | populationtotal = 188,078,261 | populationrank = 5 | populationdensity = 23,1 | countrycapital = [[Brasília]] | countrylargestcity = [[São Paulo]] | areatotal = 8,511,965 | arearank = | areawater = n/a | areawaterpercent = 2.18 | establishedin = September 7th, [[1822]] | leadertitlename = President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] | currency = Real (R$) | utcoffset = -02 to -05 | dialingcode = 55 | internettld = .BR }} '''Brazil''' is a [[country]] in [[South America]]. It is the [[earth|world]]'s fifth largest country. The country has a [[population]] of 186 million people. Most people in Brazil speak [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. The [[capital (city)|capital]] of Brazil is [[Brasília]], a city planned and built from 1957 to 1960. The country also has the world's fourth largest [[city]], [[São Paulo]]. == Geographics == there is also a dry plant region named ''caatinga''. Brazil is known for [[soccer]], but it also has many other things: a varied culture (influenced by people who have come from many countries), and a growing [[economy]]. Brazil is the largest country and in [[South America]] and the largest economy in [[Latin America]]. Its people include people of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] or other [[Europe]]an descent, [[Africa]]n descent, and [[Indigenous peoples|native Amerindians]], as well as many people of [[Mulatto|mixed origins]]. The country is the fifth largest in the world by area. It is known for its numerous rainforests and jungles. It neighbours [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], [[French Guiana]], [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Paraguay]], [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]], therefore it borders every country in South America, with the exception of two, [[Chile]] and [[Ecuador]]. The most important cities are [[São Paulo]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Salvador]], [[Brasília]], [[Curitiba]], [[Belo Horizonte]], [[Salvador]], [[Porto Alegre]], [[Recife]], [[Fortaleza (Brazil)|Fortaleza]], [[Manaus]] and [[Vitória (Brazil)|Vitória]]. People from Brazil are called Brazillians. == See also == *[[Political subdivisions of Brazil]] Britain '''Britain''' is often used as a short name for the [[United Kingdom]] (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland). People use this name because most of the UK is on the island of [[Great Britain]]. Sometimes the name Britain is used to refer to the island of Great Britain only, especially in historical contexts e.g. 'Roman Britain'. There are three countries on the island of Britain: [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. ==History of the name Britain== The modern name '''Britain''' comes from an old [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] name ''Prydyn'' (or ''Prydein''). The [[Irish language]] name was ''Cruithin''. The old [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] writers heard these names and called the island ''Pritanni''. Scholars now think the word was the name of the [[Picts]] (who lived 2,000-1,500 years ago in the north of Britain which is northern [[Scotland]] today) in the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Irish language|Irish]] languages. When the [[Roman]]s came to the island they called it [[Britannia]]. Most of Brittania was the home of the [[Celt]]ic people called the [[Briton]]s or Brythons who spoke the ancestor language of modern [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Cornish]] and [[Breton language|Breton]]. When some of these Britons moved to live in north-west [[France]] their called their new country by the same name as their old one. It came to be known as 'Breizh' in [[Breton language|Breton]], and was called [[Brittany]] in English (from the French name ''Bretagne''). To make clear the difference between Brittany and Britain some people started to call the island of Britain "[[Great Britain]]", because it was bigger than the "little Britain" (Brittany) in France. Chemistry '''Chemistry''' [kem'-ihs-tree] is the [[science]] of ''[[chemical element]]s'' and ''[[Chemical compound|compounds]]'', and how these things work together. It is the study of the [[materials]] (things) that make up our bodies and everything in the world around us. Chemistry began as a true science during the 1600s. This is when chemists discovered the simplest [[substance]]s that make up all other substances. These simple substances are called ''elements''. For a long time before that, people were trying to study these things to figure out how to do things like turn [[lead]] into [[gold]], but no one ever did. This was called [[alchemy]] [al-kem-mee]. A chemical ''compound'' is a substance made up of two or more ''elements''. ==Things studied in chemistry== [[Atom]]s -- [[Chemical compound]]s -- [[Chemical element]]s -- [[Ion]]s -- [[Isotope]]s -- [[Mixture]]s -- [[Molecule]]s -- [[Particle]]s -- [[Plastic]]s -- [[Polymer]]s -- [[Substance]]s [[Physical change]] -- [[Chemical change]] -- [[Physical property]] -- [[Chemical property]] -- [[Scientific method]] -- [[SI base unit]] [[Chemical formula]] -- [[Chemical bond]] -- [[Chemical equation]] -- [[Chemical reaction]] ==See also== *[[Periodic table]] *[[List of common elements]] *[[Common chemical apparatus]] *[[Laboratory techniques]] *[[Chemical techniques]] == Other websites == *[http://wulfenite.fandm.edu/Intro_to_Chem/an_introduction.htm An Introduction to Chemistry] *[http://users.senet.com.au/~rowanb/chem/ Chemistry Central] *[http://chemistry.toorc.org The Chemistry Resource] Compound * In [[chemistry]], a '''[[chemical compound]]''' is a chemical combination of two or more [[chemical element]]s. * In [[language]], a '''[[compound word]]''' is one that is made from two or more other words, for example ''[[blackboard]]'', ''[[football]]'', and ''[[airplane]]''. Computer science '''Computer science''' is the science of how to treat [[information]]. There are many different fields. Some of them look at problems in a more way. Some fields need certain kinds of [[machine]]s, called [[computer]]s. A computer scientist will need [[mathematics|math]], [[science]], and know-how to make and use computers. == Common tasks for a computer scientist == === Asking a question === A computer is a device which takes orders as fast as you can give them to it and works as fast as it can to solve the orders. === Asking the right question === Computers can do some things easily (for example, simple math, or sorting a list of names from A-to-Z). Computers cannot do some things, though. Computers cannot answer questions that do not have enough details, or questions that have no answer. Computers can answer some questions, but may take too much time. As an example, it may take too long to find the shortest way through all the towns in the USA, so every so often a computer scientist will look for a nearly full answer (an [[approximation]]). A computer will answer these kind of questions much faster. === Answering the question === [[Algorithm]]s have to do with the way computers answer questions. Take playing cards, for example. A computer scientist may want to sort the cards, first by color, and then by order (like 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace). The computer scientist may see different ways to sort the playing cards. If the way has a detailed account of how to sort the cards, the scientist has made an algorithm. The scientist first needs to test if the algorithm does what it should in all events. The scientist can then see how well it sorts the cards. A simple, but poor, algorithm would: drop the cards, group them up, and see if they look sorted. If not, do it again. This will work, but will probably take a very long time. A person may better do this by looking through all the cards, finding the one that goes in the first position (2 of diamonds), and putting it at the start. After this, he looks for the second position, and so on. This works much faster, and does not need as much space. Computer science left the other sciences near the end of the [[20th century]] and made its own ways of doing things and its own group of word uses. It has to do with [[electrical engineering]], mathematics, and [[language science]]. Computer science looks at the [[theory|theoretical]] (not real) parts of computers. [[Computer engineering]] looks at the real [[computer hardware|parts]] of computers (those that a person could touch), and [[software engineering]] looks at the use of [[software|computer programs]] and how to make them. ==Parts of computer science== === Central math === * [[Boolean algebra]] (when something can only be true or false) * [[Computer numbering formats]] (how computers count) * [[Discrete mathematics]] (math with numbers a person can count) * [[Symbolic logic]] (clear ways of talking about math) === How an ideal computer works === * [[Algorithmic information theory]] (how easily a computer can answer a question?) * [[computational complexity theory|Complexity theory]] (how much [[time]] and memory does a computer need to answer a question?) * [[Computability theory]] (can a computer do something?) * [[Information theory]] (math that looks at [[information|data]] and how to process data) * [[Computation|Theory of computation]] (how to answer questions on a computer using algorithms) * [[Graph theory]] (math that looks for directions from one point to another) * [[Type theory]] (what kinds of data should computers work with?) * [[Denotational semantics]] (math for [[computer languages]]) * [[Algorithm]]s (looks at how to answer a question) * [[Compiler]]s (turning words to computer programs) * [[Lexical analysis]] (how to turn words to data) * [[Microprogram]]ming (how to control the most important part of a computer) * [[Operating system]]s (simple computer programs to control different kinds of other programs in computer systems) * [[Cryptography]] (making data safer) === Computer science at work === * [[Artificial intelligence]] (making computers look intelligent) * [[Computer algebra]] (using computers for [[Mathematics|Mathematical problems]]) * [[Computer architecture]] (What should a computer look like inside) * [[Computer graphics]] (making pictures with computers, as in [[CG]]) * [[Computer network]]s (hooking computers to other computers) * [[Computer program]] (how to tell a computer to do something) * [[Computer programming]] (writing, or making, computer programs) * [[Computer security]] (making computers and their data safe) * [[Database]]s (a way to get and store data) * [[Data structure]] (how to form or group data) * [[Distributed computing]] (using more than one computer to solve a difficult problem) * [[Information retrieval]] (getting data back) * [[Operating system]]s (what makes a computer run, like [[Linux]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS]]) * [[Programming language]]s ([[language]]s that a [[programmer]] uses to make computer programs) * [[Program specification]] (how a programmer makes a computer program) * [[Program verification]] (making sure a computer progranm does what it is supposed to do, see [[debugging]]) * [[Robotics|Robots]] (Using machines controlled by computers) * [[Software engineering]] (making computer programs better) ===What computer science does=== *[[Benchmark]] (testing a computer's power) *[[Computer vision]] (how computers can see and understand images) *[[Collision detection]] (how computers (controlling robots) do not smash against things) *[[Data compression]] (making data smaller) *[[Data structure]]s (how computers group and sort data) *[[Data acquisition]] (getting data) *[[Design pattern]]s (solutions to common problems) *[[Digital signal processing]] (cleaning and "looking" at data) *[[File format]]s (how computers store and group data in a [[Computer file|file]]) *[[Human-computer interaction]] (how humans use computers) *[[Information security]] (keeping data safe from other people) *[[Internet]] (a large [[network]] that hooks up nearly all computers) *[[Online computations and algorithms]] *[[Software optimization|Optimization]] (making [[software|computer programs]] work faster) *[[Software metric]]s *[[Very large system integration|VLSI design]] (the making of a very large and complex computer system) == See also== * [[computing]] * [[computer scientist]] * [[Turing Award]] * [[IEEE John von Neumann Medal]] * [[Computer jargon]] * [[jargon file|Computer slang]] * [[Computer science basic topics]] * [[List of words about computers|Encyclopedia of Computer Terms]] Computer A '''Computer''' is a [[machine]] that manipulates [[data]] according to a [[set]] of [[Source code|instructions]]. Computers are able to do [[mathematics|mathematical]] calculations. Modern computers can do complex mathematical computations -- billions per minute. Computers have been used to control industrial operations, which used to be routine clerical work. Recently, they have spread to the home, where they are used for media, web browsing and desktop applications. ==History of computing== was one of the first programmable devices.]] It is difficult to identify any particular device as the earliest computer. This is because the meaning of the word "computer" has changed over time. Originally, the word referred to a person who did numerical calculations (a [[human computer]]). Human computers often used [[mechanical calculating device]]s to help them solve their problems. The history of the modern computer begins with two separate [[technology|technologies]] - that of automated calculation and that of programmability. Examples of early mechanical calculating devices include the [[abacus]], the [[slide rule]] and arguably the [[astrolabe]] and the [[Antikythera mechanism]] (which dates from about 150-100 BC). [[Hero of Alexandria]] (c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when.{{cite web | url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/HeronAlexandria2.htm | title=Heron of Alexandria | accessdate=2008-01-15 }} This is the essence of programmability. The "castle clock", an [[astronomical clock]] invented by [[Al-Jazari]] in 1206, is considered to be the earliest [[Computer programming|programmable]] [[analog computer]]. It displayed the [[zodiac]], the [[Heliocentric orbit|solar]] and [[lunar orbit]]s, a [[Lunar phase|crescent moon]]-shaped [[Pointer (computing)|pointer]] travelling across a gateway causing [[Gate operator|automatic doors]] to open every [[hour]],Howard R. Turner (1997), ''Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction'', p. 184, [[University of Texas Press]], ISBN 0292781490[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, pp. 64-9 ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering]) and five [[robot]]ic musicians who play music when struck by [[lever]]s operated by a [[camshaft]] attached to a [[water wheel]]. The length of [[Daytime (astronomy)|day]] and [[night]] could be re-programmed every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. At the end of the [[Middle Ages]], European mathematics and [[engineering]] became more important. In 1623, [[Wilhelm Schickard]] constructed a device that is seen as the earliest of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by European engineers. None of these devices fit the modern definition of a computer, because they could not be programmed. In 1801, [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]] made an improvement to the [[loom|textile loom]] that used a series of [[punch card|punched paper cards]] as a template to allow his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, but limited, form of programmability. Only when automatic calculation was combined with programmability did the first computers in the modern sense result. In 1837, [[Charles Babbage]] was the first to make a design of a fully programmable mechanical computer. He called it the "The [[Analytical engine|Analytical Engine]]".The Analytical Engine should not be confused with Babbage's [[difference engine]] which was a non-programmable mechanical calculator. Because Babbage did not have enough money and could not resist changing the design all the time, he never built his Analytical Engine. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the [[United States Census, 1890|U.S. Census in 1890]] by [[tabulating machine]]s designed by [[Herman Hollerith]] and manufactured by the [[Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation]], which later became [[IBM]]. By the end of the 19th century a number of technologies that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers had begun to appear: the [[punch card|punched card]], [[Boolean algebra (logic)|Boolean algebra]], the [[vacuum tube]] (thermionic valve) and the [[teleprinter]]. During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated [[analog computer]]s, which used a direct mechanical or [[electricity|electrical]] model of the problem as a basis for [[computation]]. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. Computing devices became more powerful and flexible during the 1930s and 1940s. The features that are seen as defining a modern-day computer were added during this time. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by [[Claude Shannon]] in 1937) and more flexible programmability were very important steps. It is difficult to define one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer". Notable achievements include: was one of the first computers to implement the stored program ([[von Neumann architecture|von Neumann]]) architecture.]] * [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Electromechanics|electromechanical]] "Z machines". The [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]] (1941) was the first working machine featuring [[Binary numeral system|binary]] arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be [[Turing completeness|Turing complete]], therefore being the world's first operational computer. * The non-programmable [[Atanasoff–Berry Computer]] (1941) which used vacuum tube based [[computation]], binary numbers, and [[regenerative capacitor memory]]. * The secret British [[Colossus computer]]s (1943)B. Jack Copeland, ed., Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford University Press, 2006, which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was used for [[cryptanalysis|breaking]] German wartime codes. * The [[Harvard Mark I]] (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability. * The U.S. Army's [[Ballistics Research Laboratory]] [[ENIAC]] (1946), which used [[decimal]] arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose [[Electronics|electronic]] computer (since [[Konrad Zuse]]'s [[Z3 (computer)|Z3]] of 1941 used [[electromagnets]] instead of [[electronics]]). Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its programming. Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a more flexible and elegant design, which is known as "stored program architecture" or [[von Neumann architecture]]. This design was first formally described by [[John von Neumann]] in the paper ''[[First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC]]'', distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time, the first of these was completed in [[Great Britain]]. The first to be demonstrated working was the [[Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine]] (SSEM or "Baby"), while the [[EDSAC]], completed a year after SSEM, was the first practical implementation of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—[[EDVAC]]—was completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years. Nearly all modern computers implement the stored-program architecture in some form. It has become the main [[concept]] which defines a modern computer. Most of the technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture. are miniaturized devices that often implement stored program [[CPU]]s.]] Computers that used [[vacuum tube]]s as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s. Vacuum tube electronics were largely replaced in the 1960s by [[transistor]]-based electronics, which are smaller, faster and cheaper to produce. They also need less power and are more reliable than vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on [[integrated circuit]]s. [[Microprocessor]]s, such as the [[Intel 4004]], further decreased size and cost. They also made computers faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, computers became sufficiently small and cheap to replace simple mechanical controls in domestic [[appliance]]s such as [[washing machines]]. The 1980s also saw [[home computer]]s and the now ubiquitous [[personal computer]]. With the evolution of the [[Internet]], personal computers are becoming as common as the [[television]] and the [[telephone]] in the household. In 2005 Nokia started to call its top-line smartphones of the N-series "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple [[iPhone]] in 2007, many are now starting to add the [[smartphone]] category among "real" computers. In 2008, if the category of smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, is no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia. ==Kinds of computers== A "desktop computer" is a small machine which is usually accompanied by a screen (which isn't part of the computer) and used at a household. "Laptop computers" are portable computers that are commonly used for work or personal media purposes. Both laptops and desktops are considered personal computers. "Mainframes" are large computers used for managing businesses or hosting servers. "Embedded computers" are computer systems that cannot be programmed by the user because they are preprogrammed for a specific task and are buried within the equipment they serve. For example, in [[mobile phone]]s, [[Automatic Teller Machine]]s, [[Microwave oven]]s, [[CD Player]]s and [[Car]]s. ==Common uses of home computers== *Playing [[computer game]]s *[[Writing]] *Solving [[mathematics]] *Looking for things on the [[Internet]] *Watching [[TV]] and [[movies]] *Listening to [[music]] *[[Communication|Communicating]] with other people ==How computers work== Computers store data and the instructions telling them what to do with the data as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as [[binary]] [[symbol]]s (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a [[bit]], which comes from the words binary [[Numerical_digit|digit]]. Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use. A list of these instructions is called a [[program]] and stored on the computer's [[hard disk]]. Computers use ''memory'' called "[[RAM]]" as a space to carry out the instructions and store data while it is doing these instructions. When the computer wants to store the results of the instructions for later, it uses the [[hard disk]]. An [[operating system]] tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. It tells the electronics inside the computer, or "[[hardware]]", how to work to get the results it needs. This lets most computers have the same [[operating system]], or list of orders to tell it how to talk to the user, while each computer can have its own computer programs or list of jobs to do what its user needs. Having different programs and [[operating system]]s makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. When a user needs to use a computer for something different, the user can learn how to use a new program. ==Computers and the Internet== One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with [[communication]]. Communication is how people share [[information]]. Computers have helped people move forward in [[science]], [[medicine]], [[business]], and [[learning]], because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The [[Internet]] is the thing that lets communicate between their computers. [[Blog]]s are used by many people to say what they want on the [[Internet]]. Some people spend most of their time reading and writing blogs. Many from all over the world use them. Some people use them to write about things that happen to them. Experts can use them to help people learn more. Some blogs are used by companies to sell things. ==Computers and waste== A computer is now almost always an [[electronic device]]. It usually contains materials that will become [[toxic waste]] when disposed of. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its [[waste management]] must also be paid for. This is called [[product stewardship]]. Computers can become quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so [[computer recycling]] happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to [[developing nation]]s so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. ==The main hardware in a computer== Computers come different forms, but most of them have a common architecture. *All computers have a [[CPU]] *All computers have some kind of [[data bus]] which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment. *All computers have some form of memory. These are usually chips ([[integrated circuit]]s) which can hold information. *Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment. *Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output. They may also have other peripheral devices connected. A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the [[CPU]] is like a brain. It does most of the 'thinking' and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the [[nerves]] that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides [[electricity]] to the entire computer. The various drives ([[compact disc|CD]] drive, [[floppy drive]], and on many newer computers, [[USB drive]]) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The [[hard drive]] is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a [[sound card]] or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are [[loudspeaker|speakers]], which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a [[graphics card]], which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can. ==References==
* {{cite paper | author = Kempf, Karl | title = Historical Monograph: Electronic Computers Within the Ordnance Corps | publisher = [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]] ([[United States Army]]) | url = http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/U-S-Ord-61.html | date = 1961 }} * {{cite web | last = Phillips | first = Tony | publisher = American Mathematical Society | year = 2000 | title = The Antikythera Mechanism I | url = http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsnew/column/antikytheraI-0400/kyth1.html | accessdate = 2006-04-05 }} * {{cite paper | author = Shannon, Claude Elwood | title = A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits | publisher = Massachusetts Institute of Technology | url = http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/11173 | date = 1940 }} * {{cite book | author = [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] | publisher = Digital Equipment Corporation | location = [[Maynard, Massachusetts|Maynard, MA]] | title = PDP-11/40 Processor Handbook | url = http://bitsavers.vt100.net/dec/www.computer.museum.uq.edu.au_mirror/D-09-30_PDP11-40_Processor_Handbook.pdf | format = PDF | year = 1972 }} * {{cite paper Mielke, N. | title = Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories | publisher = IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium | date = 1988 }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.top500.org/lists/2006/11/overtime/Architectures | title = Architectures Share Over Time | accessdate=2006-11-27 | last = Meuer | first = Hans | authorlink = Hans Meuer [[Jack Dongarra|Dongarra, Jack]] | date = [[2006-11-13]] | publisher = [[TOP500]] }} * {{cite book | last = Stokes | first = Jon | title = Inside the Machine: An Illustrated Introduction to Microprocessors and Computer Architecture | year = 2007 | publisher = No Starch Press | location = San Francisco | isbn = 978-1-59327-104-6 }}
Chinese '''Chinese''' means from or about the [[country]] of [[China]], especially a person from [[China]] or one of the [[language]]s of [[China]]. == Chinese Writing == Chinese Writing does not use letters. It has but 50,000 different characters, each one made of different lines. There are many different Chinese [[language]]s but they all write using the same characters. Each line of Chinese is written starting at the top of the page and working downwards. The lines are written working from the right to the left of the page. There are two types of Chinese writing, traditional and simplified. In modern China, most Chinese people do not write the traditional way. Instead, they use a [[computer]]. The most popular way to use a computer [[keyboard]] is to type Chinese is called [[Pinyin]]. Chinese writing is often made into a type of art, called [[calligraphy]], which means making art from writing. == Other websites == * [http://www.csulb.edu/~txie/introduction.htm Learning Chinese Online - General Introduction] - A page of links to web pages about the Chinese language Continent A '''continent''' is a large area of the [[land]] on [[Earth]] that is joined together. People do not agree about how many continents there are. In general it is agreed there are seven continents. *[[Africa]] *[[Antarctica]] *[[Asia]] *[[Europe]] *[[North America]] *[[Australia]] *[[South America]] [[Oceania]] is a region which includes [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[Pacific Islands]]. Some say that Oceania is not a continent[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/as.html#Geo World fact book - Australia] but it is often treated like one. Other groups[http://worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/au.htm Worldatlas.com - Australia] believe that it is a continent and that Australia is just a part of this continent and not its own continent. Some say that North America and South America are one continent. Some say that Europe and Asia are only parts of a continent called [[Eurasia]]. Some even say that Eurasia and Africa are one continent called [[Eurafrasia]]. When [[Britain|British]] people talk about "the Continent" (or "Continental") they mean the [[Europe|European mainland]]. This meaning is not used as much as it used to be, but is still seen in phrases like "Continental [[breakfast]]" ([[bread|rolls]] with [[cheese]], [[jam]] etc as distinct from an "English breakfast" which is a cooked breakfast). ==See also== *[[List of countries by continents]] ==References== Classical element The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] '''classical elements''' are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek [[philosophy]], [[science]] and [[medicine]], these make up a whole. *Fire is both hot and dry. *Air is both hot and wet. *Water is both cold and wet. *Earth is both cold and dry. The image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties. [[Galen]] said these elements were used by [[Hippocrates]] to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air). In [[Chinese]] [[Taoism]] the elements are [[metal]], [[wood]], [[water]], [[fire]], [[earth]] (金、木、水、火、土). China '''China''' (中國) is an ancient region in [[Asia]]. ==History== China has one of the oldest [[civilization]]s in the world. It has a recorded history for over five thousand years. It reached its golden age during the [[Tang Dynasty]] (about A.D. [[10th century]]). China is home to some of the oldest artwork in the world. Statues and pottery, as well as decorations made of [[jade]], are some classic examples. China's economic and military strength throughout the world was oppressed during the [[Qing Dynasty]] (around the [[17th century]] to [[20th century]]). Many of its lands were lost to [[Russia]], the [[British]], the [[Japan]]ese and other strong countries. In [[1911]] a country, the [[Republic of China]] was founded by [[Sun Yat-sen]] (Sun Yixian). But its [[government]] was very weak. [[Army]] leaders in different area controlled the local governments, and later fell into the dictatorship of Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi). In [[1931]], [[Japan]] invaded [[Manchuria]], a place in the northeastern part of China. On [[July 7]], [[1937]], the Japanese attacked the rest of the country, starting what was named the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Sino-Japanese War]]. The war later became part of [[World War II]]. The war was fought for eight years and millions of Chinese people were killed. In [[1945]], after the [[United States]] dropped two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered unconditionally to the [[Allied Powers]]. However, the [[Chinese Civil War]] later started between the [[Kuomintang|Kuomindang (Nationalists)]] of the [[Republic of China|Republic of China (ROC)]] and the [[Communists]] of the [[People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China (PRC)]].One side wanted to make China like Soviet Union, whreas the other side wanted to keep china in its current state at the time, which caused chaos and lots of people died in the Chinese Civil War. the Chinese Civil War was going on throughout World War II. The Communists, led by [[Mao Zedong]], Liu Shaoqi and others. Later Shaoqi lost influence on Mao and his death to this day remains unresolved. Communists eventually won the war. The Nationalists (led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]) fled to the island of [[Taiwan]] and set up their new [[capital]] [[city]] in [[Taipei]].After the [[Chinese Civil War]], the communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] declared a new country, the '''[[People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China (PRC)]]''', in [[Beijing]] on [[October 1]], [[1949]]. == Culture == ==== Arts==== [[China]] is the original birth place of [[Eastern]] martial [[art]]s, called [[Kung Fu]] or its first name [[Wushu]]. China is also the home of the well-respected [[Spa Monastery]] and [[Wudang Mountains]]. The first generation of martial [[art]] started more for the purpose of [[survival]] and [[war]]fare than [[art]]. Over time some [[art form]]s have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese flavor. Regardless, China has brewed some of the most renowned [[artist]]s including [[Wong Fei Hung]] ([[Huang Fei Hung]] or [[Hwang Fei Hung]]) and many others. [[Art]] has also co-existed with a variety of [[paint]]s including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like [[Big Mak]] are also praised and talked about within the [[culture]]. Country In [[geography]], a '''country''' is a [[political division]]. It is often a [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] [[territory]]. The term is most commonly [[associated]] with both [[state]] and [[nation]], and also with [[government]]. For example, the [[United States|United States of America]] is a country. == Other websites == *[http://www.guavastudios.com/country-list.htm List of countries] *[http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/countries/atlas_index.html Geography Site Country Profiles - Based on the ''CIA World Factbook''] Colchester {{infobox UK place| |country = England |official_name= Colchester |latitude= 51.8917 |longitude= 0.903 |population = [[List of English cities by population|104,390]] ([[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 Census]]) |shire_district= [[Colchester (borough)|Colchester]] |shire_county = [[Essex]] |region= East of England |constituency_westminster= [[Colchester (UK Parliament constituency)|Colchester]] |post_town= COLCHESTER |postcode_area= CO |postcode_district= CO1 - CO7 |dial_code= 01206 |os_grid_reference= TL997254 }} '''Colchester''' is a [[town]] in the northern part of the [[England|English]] [[Counties of England|county]] of [[Essex]]. It has a [[population]] of 104,000 people. People believe that Colchester is oldest [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] town that that is known in England. ==History== Before Roman times, Colchester was ''Camulodunon''. This is a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] name that came from [[Camulos]]. Camulos was the [[Celt]]ic [[deity|god]] of [[war]]. The Romans called Colchester ''Camulodunum'' (written "CAMVLODVNVM"). Colchester was attacked and burnt by [[Boudicca]] in [[61]] AD. The church at the [[Benedictine]] [[abbey]] of [[John the Baptist|Saint John the Baptist]] was destroyed in [[1539]]. This was when King [[Henry VIII]] took the property of the Roman Catholic institutions in England. The only part left is a gate that people still go to visit. King [[Cunobelinus]] (or "Cunobelin") was from Colchester. ==Twin cities== Colchester is [[sister city|twinned]] with the following cities: * [[Imola]], [[Italy]] * [[Wetzlar]], [[Germany]] * [[Avignon]], [[France]] Cartography '''Cartography''' is making [[map]]s. Cartography is part of [[geography]]. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using [[computer]]s. Making a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a [[census]] of a whole country. Anyone can make a map, but there are people who spend their lives learning how to make complicated maps. ==Cartographers in the media== Various cartographers appear in the media, notably [[Wally the Cartographer]] from [[Monkey Island]]. ==See also== Creator A '''Creator''' is a person who [[create]]s something. In some [[religion]]s ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]]) [[God]] (or [[Allah]] meaning '''the God''' in [[Arabic]]) is the most important and original '''Creator''' of the whole [[Universe]] - including [[Man]] who is made "in his image"( see [[Genesis]]) to [[observe]] it and [[control]] it like God. The idea that anything that a person is [[creating]], like an [[idea]], can be [[ownership|owned]] as [[property]] comes from the [[ethical tradition]]s and [[legal code]]s that came from these religions. In other traditions ([[Buddhism]], [[Native American religion]]s) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the [[universe]]. [[Stewardship]] of home, [[Ecological footprint|land and all of Earth]] is a test for participating in this, or just good sense. Sometimes this belief is not well understood, and poorly translated (such as the verb in Native American languages meaning "the greatest creating" being translated into English as '''Creator''') by those who only understand the "Man in God's image" view. This view has often been projected onto people who do not believe in it, along with concepts of [[intellectual rights]] inappropriate for those peoples. Contact network A '''contact network''' is a group of people who can all quickly get in touch with each other. It does not guarantee any kind of help or access to [[knowledge]] other than that. A [[creative network]], [[social network]] and [[power network]] are also contact networks. These include some kind of guarantee or expectation of help. Thus they involve more investment per person. Creative network A '''creative network''' is a loose group of people [[creating]] something in [[art]] or [[science]] or [[business]]. It is never larger than about a dozen people who may move from one project to another as a [[troupe]] or [[team]]. They have only a few [[goal]]s at a time, and never more than one major goal. Each person plays a tightly or loosely defined [[role]] in the network. For instance to make a [[movie]] a [[writer]], [[Film director|director]], [[producer]] and [[actor]]s are needed. There may also be a need for a [[costumer]], a [[cameraman]] (if the director cannot do it all), an [[audio engineer]], and a [[film editor]] if the project is big enough and the schedule tight enough. Very often the roles and timing are determined by a [[power network]] (say the [[bank]] or [[studio]] that funds the project). However, the [[creative control]] remains within the small creative network. ==See also== *[[Social network]] Chorizo '''Chorizo''' is a [[pork]] (pig-meat) [[sausage]] which people first made in [[Spain]]. In it there is fatty pork in large pieces, with [[chili pepper]] and [[paprika]]. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it. In the western hemisphere, people know the [[Mexico|Mexican]] and [[Caribbean]] sorts better. In these sorts of chorizo, the pork is in much smaller pieces. Different [[seasoning]]s are also in it with the chili. People eat chorizo without cooking it, or they fry it in oil. People also use it as a part of other dishes, the same way they eat [[breakfast sausage]]. It can also be used in place of ground [[beef]] or pork. Creativity '''Creativity''' (or '''creativeness''') is the [[ability]] of a person to be [[creative]], take part in creating, or be useful in a [[creative network]] of other people. It is very difficult to [[measure]], and some think it should not be measured. The reason is that creativity can not be defined - although several have been made, a shared definition of the concept of creativity still comes up short. Some think creativity is an important thing that makes [[human]]s different from [[ape]]s. Others recognize that even apes, other [[primates]], other [[mammal]]s and some birds [[adapt]] to [[survive]] by being creative (for example - primates using tools). [[Liane Gabora]] believes that all [[culture]] comes from creativity, not [[imitation]]. Therefore, these people say, [[human science]] should [[focus]] on it: [[Ethics]] for example would focus on finding creative [[solution]]s to [[ethical dilemma]]s. [[Politics]] would focus on the [[political virtues]] that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of [[education]]. [[Linguistics]] might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in [[grammar]]. [[Intellectual interests]] (recognized as [[intellectual rights]] or [[intellectual property]] in the [[law]]) are a way to [[reward]] creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is [[copyright]] which is supposed to pay [[author]]s and [[artist]]s, but may only pay [[lawyer]]s to make (imitative) arguments in [[court]]. Creativity is a central question in [[economics]], where it is known as '''ingenuity''' (the ability to come up with new ideas) or '''individual capital''' - [[capacity|capacities]] that [[individual]]s have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the [[instructional capital]] that might try to [[capture]] some of that in a [[patent]] or [[training]] system that helps others do what the individual leader or [[founder]] of the system can do. In [[urban economics]] there are various ways to measure creativity - the [[Bohemian Index]] and [[Gay Index]] are two attempts to do this and [[predict]] the [[economic growth]] of [[city|cities]] based on creativity. For information on creativity see [http://www.best100ideas.com practical creative ideas and tools] Catharism , in the year 1209]] . This castle was one of the last Cathar strongholds to fall]] The '''Cathar''' was a version of [[Christianity]]. It was wiped out by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in the [[13th century]] by a [[Crusade]]. They were usually considered [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]]s. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word ''katharos'' meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, ''The Gnostics'') or "the pure ones". == Principles == The Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god. The believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god put them the world but inside their bodies there was a spirit and that spirit needed to return to the good god. They were famous for a belief in a form of [[reincarnation]] and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that persons spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing. They were opposed to the doctrine of [[sin]]. [[Women]] were prominent in the faith. They were [[pacifist]]s. They were [[vegetarian]]s. They preached tolerance of other faiths. They rejected the usual Christian doctrine of [[marriage]]. An earlier [[10th century]] Bulgarian heresy, [[Bogomilism]], started some of these trends. === Language === They used a bible in the language people spoke. Many other Christians used a Bible in [[Latin language|Latin]]. Latin was spoken only by the [[priest]]s. == Problems == In [[1145]] open challenge to Catholic dominance began. In about [[1165]] the first Cathars said that the Church was "full of ravening wolves and hypocrites" and "worshipping the wrong God", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In [[1166]] the [[Council of Oxford]] in [[England]] wiped out the English Cathars. It was also suppressed in Northern France. In [[1167]] Cathar [[bishop]]s met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Langedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became "Perfects". Parish clergy had low [[morale]]. === Reactions === All this was unpopular with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], whose [[Pope]], the [[Bishop of Rome]], had begun to say he was [[infallible]] from the [[11th century]] onwards. The pope also started to hold total [[authority]] over what was called "[[Christendom]]". [[Pope Innocent III]]'s control by [[1198]] was not yet firm. In the South of France there was tremendous [[religious fervor]], and an [[economy]] that was starting to grow, and a social class of [[merchant]]s and [[peasant]]s was starting to grow. Peasants owned their own [[land]]. Meanwhile, in other parts of [[Europe]], peasants were forced to give up their land to [[noble]]s and become [[serf]]s or [[slave]]s - the system of [[feudalism]]. There was a strong central [[absolute monarchy]] that did not exist in the South of France. The [[burgher]]s and [[banker]]s had more power in this looser system. [[R. I. Moore]] is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack. However there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems: [[Troubador]]s, who combined some of the traditions of the [[Bard]]s of the [[Celt]]s, and [[Jew]]s, were both part of the multicultural society in the South of [[France]]. Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures. The [[12th century]] [[Roman Catholic Monk]]s were founding their [[monastery|monasteries]] outside the towns, drawing the best people there. === Results === The Cathars thus had little competition. The Cathar "Perfects", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived austere lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best agents. Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds. Many [[20th century]] [[Christian sect]]s have similar beliefs. Today Cathars would not be considered [[heretic]]s. == The Albigensian Crusade == === Methods === The Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land. This was an [[absolution]] of all sin, a forgiveness of all debts, and all the pillaging and raping they could want. At [[Launguedoc]], in July [[1209]], a force of about 30,000 [[Crusader]]s arrived at the walls of Beziers, and demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered. The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and kin, "we would rather be [[flaying|flayed alive]]." A mistake by the defenders of [[Beziers]] let thousands of attackers in. Arnaud Amaury, the Pope's official in charge of the crusade, supposedly said the famous phrase: 'Kill them all, God will know his own'. Everyone in the town was massacred, some while taking refuge in the church. It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all. The crusade became known as the '''Albigensian''' crusade after the town of [[Albi]]. It was to wipe out the Cathars entirely over forty or so years. The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In [[1210]] they attacked the fortress at [[Minerv]] and built "the first great bonfire of heretics" - beginning the practice of [[burning at the stake]] that would continue in the [[Inquisition]] of the [[Counter-Reformation]]. === Results === The Albigensian crusade actually failed to destroy the Cathar beliefs from southern France. This would happen by a different sort of crusade, one that turned neighbor against neighbor and brother against brother. The shadow of the Inquisition fell over the south of France. In 1233, Pope Gregory IX sent Dominican monks to the [[Languedoc]]. They set up an office of the [[Inquisition]] and sent out notices that anyone who came and confessed would be forgiven. People became terrified that their neighbors had said something about them, so they went and turned in their neighbors first. It eventually got to the point where people were turning in the dead and corpses were dug up, burned and the property they had left their heirs was taken away by the Roman Catholic Church. A lot of this crusade was not so much about faith, at least not for the church, but money. If someone were turned in as a heretic, his property was taken by the church. In the end the Inquisition did wipe out most of the Cathars though it took well over a hundred years to get all of them. The last known Cathar follower was burned at the stake in the early 1300's. Every last Cathar "Perfect" was burned at the stake. At least those the Roman Catholic Church could find. == Other websites == *http://dannyreviews.com/h/Cathars.html *http://gnosistraditions.faithweb.com/mont.html *http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gui-cathars.html *http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/ christ/west/cathar.html *http://pages.britishlibrary.net/forrester-roberts/ cathars.html *http://www.rennes-le-chateau.co.uk/html/cathars.htm * [http://cathars.philosophi.org Cathar Center in Barcelona: Books, spirituality, exhibition] Cosmology '''Cosmology''' is the study of "all that is". It is part of both [[physics]] and [[religion]], which sometimes compete to explain the same things. Some think that because the creatures [[creating]] all the [[models of our universe]] and [[ethical tradition]]s and ideas of [[divine being]]s are studied in [[biology]], that cosmology also should be really a part of biology. However, the dominant idea of scientific cosmology is the [[mechanistic paradigm]] which says that there is either an [[expanding universe]] or [[finite universe]], and that the [[laws of physics]] are predictable in either, due to the [[geometry]] it "obeys". It cannot decide to violate these laws, as a living thing might do. Other laws might be possible, but we cannot know about that. In this paradigm, [[General relativity|relativity]] is one of the most important ideas, and [[models of our universe]] are not allowed to vary much. However, this view cannot also explain [[quantum mechanics]]. Nor does it take into account [[cognitive limits]] which [[human science]] says can be important. So some newer theories prefer to say that cosmology is something biological creatures need or want to make our [[universe]] seem simpler and more predictable than it really might be. It might be for instance that since we think we can control and predict the [[machine]]s we create, like [[clock]]s, we prefer a controlled and predictable model of the [[environment]] we live in. But some think that this is like saying that what is needed to explain a [[city]] is good enough to understand [[ecology]] in general. A related question is how limited [[mathematics]] might be as a way to explain [[reality]]. If it is very general and really similar for all [[being]]s we can say "we understand reality" with it. But if it is very different for [[Extraterrestrial being|alien]]s or [[whale]]s then we cannot say this - it would be to assume it until we do math with other beings. For this reason, most [[SETI]] signals are sent out with basic math like the [[Fibonacci sequence]] and the [[prime numbers]], to see if other beings have the same ideas about these as we do - and can answer us back the same way. Many peoples have their own cosmology that today scientists and most religions do not accept. For instance in [[Renaissance Europe]] there were thought to be '''crystal spheres''' that rotated - with all the stars on one, and each planet on its own. These circled the Earth. In [[Ancient Egypt]] there was a female sky-goddess who arched over the world, which was a male god. And in other traditions, the world was a giant [[sea-turtle]] floating in a giant ocean. These ideas were good enough to explain an [[island]] or [[watershed]] or [[continent]] that people lived on. Since they did not [[travel]] much, this was a "[[good enough]]" way to explain the world they actually lived in every day. Comparing various [[creation myth]]s and [[world view]]s from all over the world is part of [[anthropology]]. This is today considered separate from the [[astrophysics]] and [[astronomy]] that provide [[statistics]] for [[physics]] to explain. But the '''cosmology''' that a physicist produces is still considered a sort of creation myth, and scientists have no special status when these are debated in [[religion]]. Worldwide, most people believe that a [[divine being]], or [[Creator]], was or is still creating universe. They see the [[ethics]] of that divinity, not the [[physics]] created by humans, at the core of [[reality]]. (citation needed) One compromise is the [[fecund universes]] theory. In that theory, the [[multiverse]] is [[alive]] and [[growing]], and [[creating]] "new universes" all the time. Humans are limited and can only see one of them and guess about others. Models of our universe help to suggest what those others might be like. But, we cannot be sure that [[laws of physics]] really vary as we think they might in a different universe. And, most important, there is no [[thinking]] or [[ethics]] or [[divine being]] necessarily involved in this [[continuous creation]] - it goes on splitting just like [[bacteria]]. This will not seem very special or divine to most people, but, it is compatible with all of the scientific data that we have so far. ''See also:'' [[string theory]] == Other websites == * [http://setiathome.berkeley.edu SETI@home] * [http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu/stats/team/team_172338.html Wikipedia team for SETI@home] Church :''This article is about the church as a building.'' :''For the Church as a Christian organization, see [[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church]]'' :''For other uses of the word Church see [[Church (disambiguation)]]'' A '''church''' is a ''[[building]]'' where people, (usually [[Christian]]s), come together to [[worship]]. Also a religious group is called a '''church'''. Large Christian church buildings are called ''[[cathedral]]s''. Small churches are called ''[[chapel]]s''. ==History of church buildings== , [[Scotland]]]] , is a [[Russian Orthodox]] church.]] , [[Germany]] is a [[13th century]] church.]] In the early days of Christianity people had to worship in secret. Christian worship was not allowed in the [[Roman empire]], so Christians had to meet in a secret place. Sometimes they met in people’s houses or barns, sometimes they met underground. The first places that were built for Christian worship were small chapels that were cut into a rock where people could worship without being discovered. After the death of the Roman emperor [[Constantine I (Rome)|Constantine]] in [[337]] A.D. Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman [[basilica]]s. This plan was later used for the fine [[Gothic]] cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the [[Middle Ages]]. ==The parts of a church== There are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts: *The '''nave''' is the main part of the church where the congregation (the people who come to worship) sit. The word “nave” comes from a [[Latin]] word “navis” meaning “ship”, because the [[ceiling]] very often looked like an upside-down hull (bottom of a ship). *The '''aisles''' (rhymes with “piles”) are the sides of the church which may run along the side of the nave. *The '''transept''', if there is one, is an area which crosses the nave near the top of the church. This makes the church shaped like a cross, which is a symbol of the fact that [[Jesus]] died on the [[crucifix|cross]]. *The '''chancel''' leads up to the [[altar]] at the top of the church. The altar is in the '''sanctuary'''. The word “sanctuary” means “somewhere which is safe”. People were not allowed to be [[arrest]]ed in the sanctuary, so they were safe. The altar is usually at the [[east]] end of the church. People in the church sit facing the altar. We say that the church “faces east”. *Churches will also have a '''tower''', usually at the west end. If the church has a transept the tower will be above the centre of the transept. In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of [[holy]] [[water]] near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The [[font]] is a bowl where people (often babies) are [[baptism|baptized]]. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church. Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called '''pews'''. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the '''pulpit''' where the priest [[preach]]es (these talks are called “[[sermon]]s”). There is also a [[lectern]] (like a large [[music stand]]) from where the lessons (the [[Bible]] readings) are read. If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be [[column|pillars]] which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the '''triforium'''. Over the triforium is the '''clerestory''' which is a row of small windows high up in the church wall. The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like “rude”) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the [[epistle]] and the [[gospel]]. Sometimes people sung from there. Inside the chancel are the benches where the [[choir]] sit. These are called '''choir stalls'''. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called “cantoris” (the side where the “[[cantor]]” sits) and those on the right (south side) are called “decani” (the side where the [[deacon]] sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called '''misericords''' (from the Latin word for “mercy”). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time (it comes from the Latin word for "mercy"). Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called '''squints'''. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an '''aumbry'''. It is a cupboard for [[Eucharist|communion]] [[wine]] that has been blessed by a priest. The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much further forward. In that case the very east end is called an '''apse'''. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the “Lady Chapel”. ==Churches through the ages== The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries. ===English churches=== In [[England|English]] churches there were several different periods of architecture: *The [[Saxon architecture|Saxon]] period ([[700]]-[[1050]]) was a time when churches were very simple. The end of the church (end of the sanctuary) was often rounded. Hardly any are left now because they were mostly made of [[wood]]. *The [[Norman architecture|Norman]] period ([[1050]]-[[1190]]) came from the style called [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] which was popular in Europe. The arches had ornaments which were called “mouldings”. The tops of the pillars looked like [[cushion]]s, so they were called “cushion capitals”. The windows were narrow and rounded at the top. *[[Early English architecture|Early English]] or [[Gothic architecture]] ([[1190]]-[[1280]]) was not as solid and heavy as Norman architecture. Towers were elegant and tall, like the tower of [[Salisbury Cathedral]]. *The [[Decorated architecture|Decorated]] style of architecture ([[1280]]-[[1360]])was popular at a time when the [[plague]] (Black Death) was raging and a third of the people in England died. That is why not so much building was done then. There were lots of stone carvings were made in churches at that time. *The [[Perpendicular architecture|Perpendicular]] style ([[1360]]-[[1540]]) was very grand. It had lots of straight upward lines and [[fan vaulting]]. This can be seen in [[Westminster Abbey]] and [[King's College Chapel, Cambridge]]. Many churches that can be seen in England were built in this period. In the [[1600s]] churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the [[Great Fire of London]] many new churches were built by the architect Sir [[Christopher Wren]]. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used. Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the [[Church of Christ the Cornerstone, Milton Keynes|Church of Christ the Cornerstone]] in [[Milton Keynes]]. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful [[mosaic]] glass windows. [[Coventry Cathedral]] is an famous example of a modern church building. ==See also== [[Cathedral]] [[Chapel]] [[Choir]] ==References== *Encyclopedia Britannica, 1973 ISBN 0 85229 099 3 == Other websites == *[http://www.ortodoksi.net/virtuaalikirkko/index.html Virtual Church] City with its town square and magnificent [[town hall]]. A modern [[suburb]] can be seen in the background.]] A '''city''' is a place where many people live together. A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses or apartments for many people to live, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work and a government organisation to run the city, and to keep law and order in the city. Many people live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do the things they want there. A city usually has a "city centre" where [[government]] and [[business]] take place, and places called [[suburb]]s where people live around the outside of the centre. ==What makes a city?== There is no rule that is used all over the world to decide why some places are called "city" and other places are called "town". Some things that make a city are: * A long history. * A big [[population]]. In modern Europe a town of over 10,000 people is a city. * A centre where business and [[local government]] takes place. * Special powers called [[town privileges]] which have been given by the government of the country, or its ruler. This was done especially during the [[Middle Ages]]. In Europe there are cities with less than 10.000 people that have town privileges, for example [[Valence-sur-Baïse]] in France. In 1999, 1.100 people lived there. * Having a cathedral or a university. This rule is found in the United Kingdom. The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St Asaph's which are both in [[Wales]], and Ripon, Southwell and Wells which are in England. In American English, people often call all places cities. In the USA, on forms (papers asking for information), the word "City" is generally used for the place where a person lives, even if the person who wants to write in the form might live in a city, a town, or a [[village]] or hamlet (a very small village). (See below: Size of cities) ==Size of cities== The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city it is. Cities that were built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much, are very much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One is because old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is because the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the [[market place]]. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city. Cities that were on a river like [[London]] could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like [[Siena]] in Italy, because the river made a [[transport]] route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Siena, which was a very important city in the 1300s has changed very little in 700 years. Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses and trucks, and there are often railway lines as well. In the US, the word city is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they gave the name "city" to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake). Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city. In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a ''"metropolis"'' and can sometimes includes several small ancient towns and villages. The ''metropolis'' of London includes the City of London, the City of Westminster and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond and Greenwich. The part that is officially known as the "City of London" only takes up one square mile. (See the picture) The rest is known as "Greater London". Many other cities have grown in the same way. These giant cities can be exciting places to live, and many people can find good jobs there, but modern cities also have many problems. Many people cannot find jobs in the cities and have to get [[money]] by [[beggar|begging]] or by [[crime]]. [[Car]]s, factories, and [[garbage]] create a lot of [[pollution]] that makes people sick. ==History== .]] The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create [[civilization]]. Famous ancient cities which fell to [[ruins]] included [[Babylon]], [[Troy]], [[Mycenae]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]]. [[Benares]] in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are [[Athens]] in [[Greece]], [[Rome]] and [[Volterra]] in [[Italy]], [[Alexandria]] in [[Egypt]] and [[York]] in England. In [[Europe]], in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special , granted by [[nobility]]. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include [[Carcassonne]] in [[France]], [[Toledo]] in [[Spain]] and [[Canterbury]] in [[England]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], a city is a town which people have always called a city, or which has got the name "city" status by royal charter (a special paper from the king or queen). Cities usually get this because they have a special number of people or are important. In the past, cities got that name if they had a cathedral or a university. Some cathedral cities, for example St David's, are small, and people do not normally think of them as cities. Cities that became cities because of their university generally grow because more people move there to be educated at the university colleges. The university cities of [[Oxford]] and [[Cambridge]] are famous throughout the world. In modern Europe, any [[town]] with at least 10,000 people in it can call itself city. Many cities that have their status from the Middle Ages are actually smaller than 10,000 people. ==The world's largest cities== is famous for its tall buildings called "[[skyscraper]]s".]] , a city famous for its beauty, large slums lie between the richest districts.]] In the world today, there are twenty cities with more than 10 million people: *[[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] - 28 million *[[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]] - 18 million *[[Mumbai]], [[India]] - 18 million *[[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]] - 18 million *[[New York City]], [[United States|USA]] - 17 million *[[Shanghai]], [[China]] - 14 million *[[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]] - 13 million *[[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], USA - 13 million *[[Calcutta]], India - 13 million *[[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]] - 12 million *[[Seoul]], [[South Korea]] - 12 million *[[Beijing]], China - 12 million *[[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]] - 12 million *[[Delhi]], India - 11 million *[[Dhaka]], [[Bangladesh]] - 11 million *[[Manila]], [[Philippines]] - 11 million *[[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] - 11 million *[[Osaka]], Japan - 11 million *[[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil - 11 million *[[Tianjin]], China - 10 million *[[Moscow]], Russia - 10 million *[[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]] - 10 million ==References== Cook .]] To '''cook''' [[food]] is to make it ready to eat by [[heat]]ing it. People can cook food with [[fire]] using [[wood]] or [[charcoal]], with a [[stove]] that uses [[propane]] or [[natural gas]], or with a stove that uses [[electricity]]. An [[oven]] is a part of a stove that is like a [[box]]. People also build ovens out of [[clay]] or [[brick]]s. There are several different ways to cook food. We [[boil]] food by cooking it in water. We [[fry]] food by cooking it in hot [[butter]] or [[vegetable oil]]. We [[bake]] food by keeping it hot in an [[oven]]. We [[roast]] or grill food by holding it over a hot [[fire]]. People often cook [[meat]] by boiling or roasting it. People bake [[bread]]. Some breads are [[fry|fried]]. Usually we cook the food in some kind of [[pot]] or [[pan]]. But people sometimes cook food by putting it directly into the fire, by [[wrap]]ping the food in [[leaves]] before they put it into the fire, or holding it over a fire with a [[stick]]. Before foods are cooked, we say they are [[raw]]. Some foods are good to eat raw. Other foods are not good for the body when they are raw, so they must be cooked. Some foods are good to eat either raw or cooked. ---- A person whose job it is to cook food may be called a '''cook''' or a '''chef'''. But the word '''cooker''' means a [[machine]] or [[tool]] that a cook might use to cook food, such as a ''[[rice]] cooker.'' To many people, cooking is an art. To many other people, it is a job. Cooking as an [[art]] is [[preparing]] the food so it tastes and looks really good. ==Economy== There is a large [[economy]] for cooking in the world. [[Restaurant]]s [[hire]] skilled cooks for large amounts of [[money]] and [[customer]]s pay for [[expensive]] [[meal]]s. ==See also== *[[List of kitchen equipment]] == Other websites == *[http://www.cyberend.com/homemaking/2003_recipe_spanishomelette.htm A recipe in Simple English] *[http://www.lovelyrecipes.com/cooking-tips.php Cooking tips and recipes] Chat To '''chat''' is to talk about ordinary things that are not very important. You can chat to one person or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the [[Internet]] where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, you chat on the Internet in a [[chat room]] or [[instant messaging|messaging]] service like [[AOL|AOL Instant Messenger]] (AIM), [[Yahoo!|Yahoo Messenger]] [[Windows Live Messenger]] or [[Tencent QQ]]. There are also programs which which let you use different messaging services from one program, such as [[Pidgin (software)|Pidgin]]. == See also == * [[Internet Relay Chat]] (IRC) * [[Web chat]] * [[Conversation]] Cup A '''cup''' is a [[container]] that can hold a [[liquid]] so we can [[drink]] it. Sometimes a cup has a [[handle]] on the side. Most cups for drinking [[heat|hot]] drinks, for example [[coffee]] or [[tea]], have handles. Types of cups include: *[[Porcelain|Teacup]] *[[Mug]] *[[Glass]] a few people collect such cups, and do not use them. ---- A '''cup''' is also a unit of [[liquid]] measurement in some countries. * In the [[United States]], a ''' cup''' is 8 fluid ounces. ''See [[U.S. customary units]].'' ---- A cup can also be an [[award]]. Crime A '''crime''' is when a person does something that is against the [[law]]s of a country. A person who does this is called a '''criminal'''. The basic idea of what things are called crimes is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person. Things like [[kill]]ing another person, injuring another person, or [[steal]]ing from another person are crimes in most countries. But different countries have many different ideas of what things are crimes. Some things that are crimes in one country are not crimes in other countries. Many countries get their ideas of what things are crimes from [[religion]]s. In many countries, if people say they made or wrote a [[book]], [[movie]], [[song]], or [[Web page]] that they didn't really write or make, it is a crime against the laws of [[copyright]]. In many countries, helping to grow, make, move, or sell [[illegal drug]]s is a crime. In most countries, [[police]] try to stop crimes and to find criminals. When the police find someone who they think might be a criminal, they usually hold the person in a [[jail]]. Then, usually, a [[court]] or a [[judge]] decides if the person really did a crime. If the court or judge decides that the person really did it, then he or she might have to pay a [[fine]] or go to [[prison]]. Sometimes the judge might decide that the criminal should be [[execute]]d (killed). This is called [[Capital punishment]] (or the ''Death Penalty''). There are countries in the world who execute criminals, and others who do not. When some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the police finding out where the money came from by [[money laundering]]. Time Cube '''Time Cube''' is a [[website]] created by [[Gene Ray]]. On that website, Dr. Ray explains his "Time Cube" theory, which describes the planet [[Earth]] as having a [[cube|cubic]] [[symmetry]], and [[time]] as rotating four "corners". Many scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be [[test]]ed. The Time Cube website is written in an angry and hateful voice. On his site, Ray says that anyone who does not believe in Time Cube is "stupid and evil". Some of the comments are [[racism|racist]], especially against black people and [[Judaism|Jews]]. There are also many comments against [[homosexuality|gay]] people. Many people find the site to be difficult to understand. Ray has spoken about Time Cube at two universities in the [[United States]], MIT and Georgia Tech. At MIT, a dean tried to cancel the lecture before it had taken place. Ray sees this as proof of a [[conspiracy]] to keep information about Time Cube hidden. == Other websites == *[http://www.timecube.com Timecube.com] Census of Marine Life The '''Census of Marine Life''' is a ten year survey of [[life]] in the [[ocean]]s, starting in [[2000]]. Its head is [[Ron O'Dor]] of [[Dalhousie University]] in [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]], Canada. It uses data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 [[nation]]s are involved and over a [[billion]] [[United States dollar|US dollar]]s will be spent on it. It is a major work of [[marine ecology]]. It is trying to do what the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] (WWF) and [[National Geographic Society]] did for [[terrestrial ecoregion]]s - say exactly what is alive on the planet. In this case, in the seas. == Other websites == *[http://www.coml.org/ Census of Marine Life website] Maize {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Maize | image = Zea mays.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = Cultivars of maize | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Liliopsida]] | ordo = [[Poales]] | familia = [[Poaceae]] | genus = ''[[Teosinte|Zea]]'' | species = '''''Z. mays''''' | binomial = ''Zea mays'' | binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] }} '''Maize''' (called '''corn''' is some countries) is a member of the [[grass]] [[family (biology)|family]] ''Poaceae''. It is a cereal [[grain]] that was first grown by people in ancient [[Central America]]. It is now the third most important cereal crop in the world. It is used as a [[food]] staple by many people in [[Mexico]], Central and [[South America]] and parts of [[Africa]]. In [[Europe]] and the rest of [[North America]], maize is grown mostly for use as [[animal]] feed. In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], maize is commonly referred to as "corn." Civics '''Civics''' is the study of [[government]]. Since a [[city]] has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city. Theories of civics can be grouped as: *[[Anarchist]] *[[Capitalist]] *[[Democrats|Democrat]] *[[Green Party|Green]] *[[Libertarian]] *[[Republicans|Republican]] *etc. Calculus '''Calculus''' is the part of [[mathematics]] which looks at things that change over time. It tries to say what type of change it is and how big it is using [[function (mathematics)|functions]] at the exact moment at which the change is taking place. There are two different types of calculus. '''Differential calculus''' divides things into small pieces and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while '''integral calculus''' joins the small pieces together and tells us how much of something is made by a change. It is used in a lot of different fields such as [[physics]], [[astronomy]], [[biology]], [[engineering]], [[economics]], [[medicine]] and [[sociology]]. ==History== In the 1670s and 1680s, Sir [[Isaac Newton]] in England and [[Gottfried Leibniz]] in Germany developed calculus at the same time, working separately from each other. Newton wanted to design a system to predict the positions of the [[planet]]s in the sky, because [[astronomy]] has always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for [[navigation]] of ships. Leibniz wanted to work out the area under a [[curve]] (a line which is not straight). Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first. Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from continental Europe supported Leibniz. Most [[mathematician]]s today, however, agree that both men share the credit equally. Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in [[physics]]. Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it. They were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world—[[Aristotle]] and [[Pythagoras]] came earlier, as did [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] who said that mathematics was the language of science. But they were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time and can predict how they will change in the future. The name "calculus" was the [[Latin language|Latin]] word for a small stone the ancient [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s used in counting and [[gambling]]. The English word "calculate" comes from the same Latin word. ==Differential calculus== '''Differential calculus''' is the process of finding out the rate of change of a [[variable]] compared to another variable. It can be used to find the speed of a moving object, the slope of a curve, figuring out the maximum or minimum points of a curve or to find answers to problems in the [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]] areas of physics, and many other uses. Many amounts can be variables, which can change their value unlike numbers such as 5 or 200. Some examples of variables are [[distance]] and [[time]]. The [[speed]] of an object is how far it travels in a particular time. So if a town is 80 kilometres (50 miles) away and a person in a car gets there in one hour, they have travelled at an average speed of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per hour. But this is only an [[average]]—they may have been travelling faster at some times (on a highway) and slower at others (at a traffic light or on a small street where people live). Imagine a driver trying to figure out a car's speed using only its odometer (distance meter) and clock, without a speedometer! Until calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at a point in time. This was a very long and hard process and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out. s to the curve.]] A very similar problem is to find the (how steep it is) at any point on a [[curve]]. The slope of a ''[[straight]]'' line is easy to work out—it is simply how much it goes up (''y'' or ) divided by how much it goes across (''x'' or ). On a ''curve'', though, the slope is a variable (has different values at different points) because the line bends. But if the curve was to be cut into very, very small pieces, the curve at the point would look almost like a very short straight line. So to work out its slope, a straight line can be drawn through the point with the same slope as the curve at that point. If it is done exactly right, the straight line will have the same slope as the curve, and is called a [[Trigonometric function|tangent]]. But there is no way to know (without very complicated mathematics) whether the tangent is exactly right, and our eyes are not accurate enough to be certain whether it is exact or simply very close. What Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly using simple and logical rules. They divided the curve into an [[infinity|infinite]] number of very small pieces. They then chose points on either side of the point they were interested in and worked out tangents at each. As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope ''approached'' a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve. They said that this particular value it approached was the actual slope. if ''x'' is 20, then ''y'' will be 400. \lim_{h\rightarrow0} \frac{f(x+h) - f(x)}{h} If we use y = x², the '''derivative''' produced [[Differential calculus#How_it_works|using this method]] is 2''x'', or 2 multiplied by ''x''. So we know without having to draw any tangent lines that at any point on the curve ''f(x)'' = ''x''², the '''derivative''' ''f'(x)'' (marked with an [[apostrophe]]) will be 2''x'' at any point. This process of working out a slope using limits is called '''differentiation''', or finding the derivative. Leibniz came to the same result, but called h "dx", which means "a tiny amount of x". He called the resulting change in f(x) "dy", which means "a tiny amount of y". Leibniz's notation is used by more books because it is easy to understand when the equations become more complicated. In Leibniz notation: \frac{dy}{dx} = f'(x) Mathematicians have grown this basic theory to make simple [[algebra]] rules which can be used to find the derivative of almost any function. ==Main idea of calculus== The main idea in calculus is called the "Fundamental Theorem of Calculus". This main idea is that the two calculus processes, differential and integral calculus, are opposites. That is, a person can use differential calculus to undo an integral calculus process. Also, a person can use integral calculus to undo a differential calculus method, just like if you add a number to another number you can 'undo' it by taking away that number. ==Demonstration of main idea of calculus== ===How to use integral calculus to find areas=== The method integral calculus uses to find areas of shapes is to break the shape up into many small boxes, and add up the area of each of the boxes. This gives an approximation to the area. If the boxes are made narrower and narrower, then there are more and more of them, and the area of all the boxes becomes very close to the area of the shape. One of the main ideas of calculus is that we can imagine having an infinite number of these boxes, each infinitely narrow, and then we would have the exact area of the shape. ==Other uses of calculus== Calculus is used to describe things that such as [[Nature]]. Calculus can be used to show how [[wave (physics)|wave]]s move. Waves are very important in the natural world. For example, [[sound]] and [[light]] can be thought of as waves. Calculus can be used to show how [[heat]] moves. Calculus can be used to show how very small things like [[atoms]] [[act]]. Calculus can be used to learn how fast something will [[falling|fall]]. Calculus can be used to learn the [[orbit|path]] of the [[moon]] as it moves around the [[earth]]. Calculus can be used to find the path of the earth as it moves around the [[sun]]. Coin the first place to make coins was Lydia (modern [[Turkey]]). == Appearance == one side often has the picture of a [[head]] on it. Most people use coins as [[currency]]. === Uses === The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things [[random]]ly. This is called "tossing a coin". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which picture is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other picture is facing up it is called "[[tail]]s". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each picture means. ==== Gambling ==== Tossing a coin can be a type of [[gambling]], which is [[illegal]] (against the law) in some [[country|countries]], but it depends, of course, if something is gambled upon with a price someone risks or if it's just merely to decide something, so it's hard to take a real gamble with coins. == Other views == Some people see coins as a sign as greed, such as some [[Communist]]s and [[Puritan]]s, who sometimes condemn over-hoarding of coins, and [[ascetic]]s, who often keep little in the ways of [[money]] (coins), leading a "poor"-lifestyle. ==Collecting== Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They are much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like [[copper]]. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little. Conceptual metaphor A '''conceptual metaphor''' is a [[metaphor]] that is used very often without being stated clearly. It is often implied in many [[idiom]]s. Usually a conceptual metaphor can be restated more clearly using the word "[[as]]" or making several more specific comparisons using the word "[[like]]" - both are called [[simile]]s. Some conceptual metaphors that are very common in English idioms: *"Love" talked about as if it were "war" or another competition *"Time" talked about as if it were a "path" through space, or a quantity that can be saved or spent or wasted Crust The '''crust''' of a piece of [[bread]] is the edge where it is harder and darker. Crust can also mean: *[[Crust (geology)]] - the outer solid layer of a planet such as the Earth but other planets also. *On Earth the crust can be divided into: **[[continental crust]] on which the land of the planet Earth sits **[[oceanic crust]] which forms most of the ocean floor Comedy A '''comedy''' is a kind of [[play]] (acting in a theater), [[television]] show or a [[movie]] that is [[funny]], silly, or that makes people [[laughter|laugh]]. Comedies may also show people telling jokes and funny stories. People who are known for acting in comedies are [[comedian]]s. ==History== Comedy plays have been around for thousands of years. The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] had comedy plays. Many comedy plays were written in the 1500s by the British writer [[William Shakespeare]]. Shakespeare's comedy plays include:'' [[All’s Well That Ends Well]], [[The Comedy of Errors]], [[A Midsummer Nights Dream]]'', and ''[[Twelfth Night]]''. ==Types== ==Sandre Comedy== There are different types of comedy. One type of comedy is called "slap stick comedy." In "slap stick comedy," people just do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Slap stick comedy can be used in comedy movies or comedy television shows. Slap stick comedy was used a lot in [[silent movies|silent (no sound) movies]] from the 1920s. A comedian who acted in the silent movies who used a lot of slapstick comedy was [[Charlie Chaplin]]. In the 1950s and 1960s, the comedian [[Jerry Lewis]] also used silly slap stick comedy in his comedy movies. ===Stand-up comedy=== Another type of comedy is "stand-up comedy." In "stand-up comedy", a comedian (person who tries to make people laugh) stands up in front of a crowd and tells jokes and silly stories. Some comedians, such as [[Jerry Seinfeld]], work as stand-up comedians as a job (way to make money). Other comedians do stand-up comedy in [[nightclub]]s (bars where adults drink [[alcohol]] and relax) as a [[hobby]] (activity that a person does for fun). ===Comedy movies=== Comedy movies are very popular type of movie. Some comedy movies have "slapstick comedy," in which people just do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Other comedy movies show funny stories or situations in which people are behaving in a silly manner. Some comedies make the audience laugh by showing strange or unusual images or situations that do not make sense. ====Different types of comedy movies==== Some types of comedy movies mix comedy with other types of movies. *There is a type of movie called a '''[[dramedy]]''', which is a mix of a drama movie and a comedy movie. *There is also a type of movie called a '''[[romantic comedy]]''' (sometimes called a "rom-com"). In romantic comedies, there is a love story about a couple who fall in love, along with silly or funny comedy parts. ===Comedy television shows=== Comedy shows are very popular on [[television]]. Comedy shows on television are often called "[[situational comedies|sitcoms]]." The word "sitcom" is a shortened way of saying "situational comedy." Television situational comedies usually show characters who do silly or funny things which make the audience laugh. Comet ]] A '''comet''' is a [[ball]] of mostly [[ice]] that moves around in [[outer space]]. It is similar to an [[asteroid]]. In [[Earth]]'s [[solar system]], the [[orbit]]s of comets go farther than [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]], a [[dwarf planet]] that used to be the farthest [[planet]] from the [[Sun]]. Most are very far away from the Sun, but some come near enough to Earth for us to see at . They have long "tails", because the Sun [[melt]]s the ice. Sometimes people call them "dirty snowballs" or "shooting stars". The hard [[centre]] of the comet is the ''[[nucleus]]''. It is one of the blackest things in the solar system. When [[light]] shone on [[Comet Halley]]'s nucleus, only 4% of the light shone back to us. [[Periodic comet|''Periodic'' comets]] visit again and again. ''Non-periodic'' or ''single-apparition'' comets visit only once. People have seen some comets when they broke into pieces: [[Comet Biela]] was one example. Another comet was seen when it hit a planet: [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] hit [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] in [[1994]]. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. [[Astronomer]]s think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object. ==Famous comets== *[[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]] *[[Hale-Bopp]] *[[Shoemaker-Levy 9]] ==History of comets== In old times, people used to be scared of comets. They didn't know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. One of these examples is shown in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], when [[Halley's Comet]] returned. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. It was not until the [[Renaissance]] when scientists started to look at comets with less superstition and base their observations on [[science]]. [[Tycho Brahe]] reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his calculations showed that comets must be six times further than the earth is from the moon. [[Edmond Halley]] (whom Halley's Comet is named after) reasoned that comets are periodic, that is, they appear once every several hundreds of years. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet. In honor of this prediction, [[Halley's Comet]] was named. [[Issac Newton]] also studied comets, but he thought that comets were do to "vapours rising from the soil". In other words, he thought that gasses came up from the ground to form comets. Newton later said that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked Edmond Halley to publish the research in his book ''[[Philosophiae Natrualis Principia Mathematica]]''. Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun. All this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that [[hell]] was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space. Although today we know a lot about comets, there will always be people who will be afraid when a comet returns. ==See also== *[[List of comets]] Cytology '''Cytology''' is the study of the [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their [[environment]]. There are two types of cells. [[Prokaryote|Prokaryotic]] cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]], and do not have a [[membrane]], or wall, around them. [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotic]] cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main [[organelle]]s of a cell and their uses are: *[[Mitochondria]]: produces [[energy]] for the cell *[[Endoplasmic reticulum]]: makes [[protein]]s and [[carbohydrate]]s for the cell to use *[[Golgi body|Golgi bodies]]: store and package products that the cell uses in plants only. *Nucleus: directs the actions of the cell *[[Centrosome]]s: guides the cell in [[mitosis]] and [[meiosis]], the processes for cell division. Christian A '''Christian''' is a [[Human|person]] who believes in [[Christianity]], a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] [[religion]]. Christianity is mostly about the [[life]] and [[teach]]ings of [[Jesus Christ]], in the [[New Testament]] and [[Interpretation|interpreted]] of [[Prophecy|prophesied]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]]/[[Old Testament]]. They are asked in the bible to follow commandments such as "Do not murder" and "honor your parents" and "do not steal" Some Christians go to church, it is believed to be important for the religion, but someone can be christian without a church. It is said all Christians are part of the church of christ wether or not they actually go to one == See also == *[[Christianity]] *[[Religion]] *[[Salvation]] == References == Cheese '''Cheese''' is a solid food made from [[milk]]. It can be soft or firm. It is made by removing water from milk. People may store cheese in a [[refrigerator]], to make sure it does not go bad. Its color varies, most commonly pictured as yellow. Cheese is rich in [[protein]]s and [[fat]]s. It also contains [[vitamin A]] , [[calcium]] and [[phosphorus]]. ==How it is made== Cheese is usually made using milk. Cheese makers usually cook the milk in a large [[pot]]s and add [[salt]] and a substance from the stomach of young cows called [[rennet]]. This curdles the cheese, it makes it solid. There are special pots for making cheese. Often, these pots are called ''vats''. Some makers do not add [[rennet]] and curdle it in other ways. One way which factories use is using bacteria. Other [[ingredients]] are added and the cheese is usually aged for a short time. ==Some types of cheese== There are many different ways to [[classification|classify]] cheeses. Some ways include: *How long the cheese was aged *The [[texture]] of the cheese (hard or soft) *How the cheese was made *What type of [[milk]] was used to make the cheese (what [[animal]] it came from) *How much [[fat]] is in the cheese *What color it is Different types of cheese include: *[[Cream cheese]] *[[Processed cheese]] *[[Cheese Curd]] *[[Blue cheese]] *[[Swiss cheese]] *[[Mozzarella]] *[[Parmesan cheese]] *[[Limburger cheese]] *[[Brie]] *[[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]] *[[Cheddar]] *[[Goat cheese]] *[[emmental cheese]] Constitution The '''constitution''' of a [[country]] (or a [[state]]) is a special type of [[law]] that tells how its [[government]] is supposed to work. It tells how the country's [[leader]]s are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in [[office]], how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed, what kind of people are eligible to [[vote]] and what other [[rights]] they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed. Limits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution ''(see [[Rule of Law]] )''. On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions. This can be known as [[dictatorship]] or simply "bending the rules". A Constitution is often a way of a uniting within a Federation. '''The UK Constitution''' Scholars don't agree whether the UK has a Constitution or not. There is a debate because the UK has parts of its Constitution [[codified]] (written) and [[uncodified]] (not written). If the constitution is uncodified, then sources for the agreement are still accessible, they are just written in different various political books or tradition, instead of written all in one place like a codified Constitution. == History == The [[Magna Carta]] of [[England]], written in 1215, was an early type of constitution. The first modern constitution in the world was that of the [[United States]] in 1787, but some Native American tribes had similar charters before that. The U.S. has one of the oldest constitutions that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the [[Articles of Confederation]] but the Articles seemed too weak so they were replaced with today's Constitution... == Other websites == [http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/USConstitutionBasic.html The US Constitution in basic English] Circle A '''circle''' is a [[round]] [[2D|two-dimensional]] shape, such as the letter ''o''. The [[centre]] of a circle is the point in the very middle. The [[radius]] of a circle is a line from the centre of the circle to a point on the side. All [[point]]s on the circle are at the same [[distance]] from the centre. In other words, the radius is the same length all the way around the circle. Mathematicians use the letter ''r'' for the length of a circle's radius. The [[diameter]] (meaning "all the way across") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the centre. Mathematicians use the letter ''d'' for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius (''d'' equals 2 times ''r''). : d = 2\ r The [[circumference]] (meaning "all the way around") of a circle is line that goes around the circle. Mathematicians use the letter ''c'' for the length of this line. The number ''[[pi|π]]'' (written as the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[letter]] ''pi'') is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter (''π'' equals ''c'' divided by ''d''). The number π is equal to about or 3.14159. {| |- |||\pi = \frac{c}{d} |- |\therefore||c = 2\pi \, r |} The [[area]], ''a'', inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by π (''a'' equals π times (''r'' times ''r'')). :a = \pi \, r^2 ==Calculating π== '''π''' can be empirically measured by drawing a large circle, then measuring its diameter and circumference, since the circumference of a circle is always π times its diameter. '''π''' can also be calculated using purely mathematical methods. Most formulae used for calculating the value of π have desirable mathematical properties, but are difficult to understand without a background in [[trigonometry]] and [[calculus]]. However, some are quite simple, such as this form of the [[Leibniz formula for pi|Gregory-Leibniz series]]: : \pi = \frac{4}{1}-\frac{4}{3}+\frac{4}{5}-\frac{4}{7}+\frac{4}{9}-\frac{4}{11}\cdots While that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not immediately obvious why it yields π. A more intuitive approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius '''r''' centered at the origin. Then any point (x,y) whose distance '''d''' from the origin is less than '''r''', as given by the [[pythagorean theorem]], will be inside the circle: : d = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2} Finding a collection of points inside the circle allows the circle's area '''A''' to be approximated. For example, by using integer coordinate points for a big '''r'''. Since the area '''A''' of a circle is π times the radius squared, π can be approximated by using: : \pi = \frac{A}{r^2} == Other websites == * [http://www.mathepower.com/english/kreis.php Calculate the measures of a circle online] Capitalization '''Capitalise''' ([[Britain|British]] spelling) or '''capitalize''' ([[North America]]n spelling) means to make one or more [[character]]s [[upper case]]. The first letter of a [[sentence]] is capitalised in many [[language]]s, as are the first letters of [[proper noun]]s such as names of people and places. In [[Germany|German]], however, all nouns are capitalized. It is the only language to do that. The [[homonym]] '''capitalize''' is a different word, and means "to fully fund as an [[investment]]". Cuba '''Cuba''' is a country in the [[Caribbean]] sea. The country is made up of one big island and many smaller islands. It is near the [[United States]], [[Mexico]], [[Haiti]], [[Jamaica]] and the [[Bahamas]]. People from Cuba are called Cubans, and they speak Spanish. Cuba has a warm climate, but has many [[hurricane]]s every year. The capital city of Cuba is [[Havana]]. In Spanish, the capital is called "La Habana". ==Culture== Cuba is famous for its many types of music, especially dance music such as [[Salsa]] and [[Mambo]]. Because Cubans come from Spain, Africa, South America and North America, Cuban music is special and different. ==History== ====Early history==== Before Cuba was conquered by the Spaniards, three tribes lived on the island were the Taínos, the Ciboneys, and the Guanajatabeyes. The Taínos were the largest and most common of the three tribes. They farmed crops such as beans, corn, squash, and yams. The Taínos also slept in hammocks which the Spaniards would introduce to the rest of the world. Then, in 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] arrived in Cuba on his first trip to the Americas. Three years later he claimed the islands for the Spanish. The Spanish began to rule Cuba afterwards. The Spanish brought thousands of slaves from Africa to Cuba to work for them. Most of the native Cubans died because of the new diseases brought by the Spanish and Africans. The Spanish also treated the native Cubans very cruelly and massacred many of them. The Spanish ruled for many years. Cuba became the most important producer of sugar. In the 19th century, Cubans rebelled against the Spanish rulers, but failed until 1898, when the United States went to war with the Spanish and defeated them. Cuba became American for four years afterwards, before it became an independent [[republic]] in [[1902]]. Even though Cuba was independent, the Americans still controlled the island by a law called the [[Platt Amendment]]. In 1933 the Cubans stopped the Platt Amendment, but the Americans still had a big say in Cuban politics. Americans owned most of Cuba’s businesses. The Americans supported the leader Fulgencio Batista, who was seen by many Cubans as corrupt. ====Cuban revolution==== In 1959, [[Fidel Castro]] led a revolution against Fulgencio Batista. Castro took power of Cuba with [[Che Guevara]] from [[Argentina]], his brother Raul, and others who fought against Batista. Castro made many changes to Cuba and ended American ownership of Cuban businesses. This made Castro unpopular in America and the United States banned all contact with Cuba. Many Cubans also went to America because of this. In 1961 the Americans helped some of these Cubans to attack Cuba and remove Castro, but they failed. Castro then asked the Soviet Union to help defend them from the Americans, which they did. The [[Soviet Union]] put nuclear weapons in Cuba and aimed them at America. American President Kennedy demanded that they be removed or a new war would begin. This was known as the ''[[Cuban Missile Crisis]]''. The Soviet Union then removed the missiles. Cuba became a [[communist]] led country like the Soviet Union after this. The Soviet Union bought most of Cuba’s sugar for expensive prices. Cuba spent this money on health, education and the army. This made Cuba’s schools and hospitals some of the best in the world, and the army fought in [[Africa]] to support black Africans against the white South African army. Cuba also supported groups in South America fighting against the dictators of those countries. However, the Cuban government began to control most of life in Cuba under the communist system. Disagreeing with the Cuban government and Fidel Castro in public was not allowed. Some Cubans did not like this and tried to leave Cuba. Most Cubans who left went to America. Some Cubans who did not like the government and stayed were put in jail. Many groups from around the world protested against Cuba because of this, and demanded that Fidel Castro give up power. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. This meant that Cuba, which had sold most of its products to the Soviet Union, had no money coming into the country. The Americans made the restrictions against contact with Cuba tighter. America said the restrictions on contact would continue unless Fidel Castro gave up power. Cuba became very poor in the 1990s. This became known in Cuba as “The Special Period”. Because of the disaster, Cuba changed to allow less control by the government, more discussion amongst the people, and private shops and businesses. Cuba also tried to get tourists to visit the island. In the 2000s, tourism to Cuba began to make money for the island again. Though Fidel Castro had remained in power, he had passed all duties to his brother Raul after an illness. Fidel Castro is 80 years old and was one of the longest serving heads of state. In 2008, Raúl Castro became the official president of Cuba. Cube A '''cube''' is a block with all [[right angle]]s and whose [[height]], [[width]] and [[depth]] are all the same. A cube is one of the simplest [[mathematical shape]]s in space. Something that is shaped like a cube is sometimes referred to as ''cubic''. ==Relative 2-dimensional shape== The 2-dimensional shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc) that a cube is made of is [[square (geometry)|square]]s. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight [[line]]s. The corners (vertices) are at right angles. A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 sides. ==Volume== *The [[volume]] of a cube is the [[length]] of any one of the edges (they are all the same length so it does not matter which edge is used) ''cubed''. *This means you multiply the number by itself, and then by itself again. d (or Volume=d3). ==Cubic shaped things== * [[Dice]] * [[Box]]es Cost of living '''Cost of Living''' is the amount of [[money]] it costs just to live in a certain place. It includes [[food]], [[house|housing]], etc. '''"Cost of Living"''' is also an [[episode]] from ''[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation''. It has a "fantasy land" in it. December '''December''' is the twelfth and last month of the year, with 31 days. From the [[Latin]] ''decem'' for "ten" (it was the tenth month of the year, before [[January]] and [[February]] were added). December begins on the same day of the week as [[September]] every year. December's flower is the [[Narcissus]] with its birthstone being the [[Turquoise]]. The meaning of the Turquoise is Prosperity. some of the holidays celebrated in December are,[[Christmas]], [[New year's eve]], [[Kwanzaa]], and [[Hanukkah]]. == Other websites == *[http://www.decembercalendar.net December Calendar] Dublin '''Dublin''' is the [[capital (city)|capital city]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. The Greater Dublin Area has a [[population]] of over 1.6 million people. Dublin is also the biggest [[city]] on the [[island]] of [[Ireland]]. Dublin was built by the [[Vikings]] and is built upon the river Liffey. Many famous [[writer]]s lived in Dublin. [[Oscar Wilde]] and [[George Bernard Shaw]] were born in Dublin. [[James Joyce]] is probably Dublin's best known and most [[international]] writer. == Other websites == *[http://reflectingcity.com/ "The Reflecting City"] *[http://www.dubchamber.ie/Uploads/Policy.pdf Dublin GDP stats] *[http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=53330000&x=-6250000&z=11&l=1&m=a WikiSatellite view of Dublin at WikiMapia] *[http://www.dublinblog.ie The Dublin Community Blog] *[http://www.travelingluck.com/Europe/Ireland/Dublin/-1502554_Dublin.html Satellite map of Dublin] - Including local geographic features. Dance '''Dance''' is when people move their body to [[music]]. There are many kinds of dance, like jazz, ballet, tap, waltz, hip hop,bollywood,irish and slow dancing and many many others Dancing is done for fun. Dance is an art. Dance can be done by one person or two people or many people. Dancing is usually done while music is playing. Some people dance to express their feelings and emotions. Other people dance to feel better. Someone who makes a dance, is called a [[choreographer]] or "dance writer". ==History== The first dance school was opened in 1661 in [[Paris, France]]. Only men were accepted until 1681. After 1681, women were accepted too. Ballroom dances are forms of modern dance. Ballroom dances such as the waltz are done with two people. People who want to learn to dance can go to dance schools. Dance schools teach dance movements. It takes many years of practice to become an experienced and flexible dancer. Dance can be used as a form of communication between humans or humans and animals, it is a way of becoming an object or it is musical, mythological or a funny piece of work. Classical ballet (say 'bal-ay' ), tap, folk, dance gymnastics, figure skating and synchronised swimming are types of dance. 'Swan Lake' has been shown to the public using ballet. To make (or choreograph ) a dance, it is good to count the movement. Usually, two moves will last until the numbers '1, 2, 3, 4' or '1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8' or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. ==Styles== There are many different types of dance style, including: *[[Ballet]] *[[Ballroom dancing]] *[[Belly dancing]] *[[Breakdancing]] *[[Classical]] *[[Contemporary]] *[[Funk]] *[[Hip hop]] *[[Jazz]] *[[Lyrical]] *[[Modern]] *[[R n’ B]] *[[Salsa]] *[[Song and dance]] *[[Swing]] *[[Tango]] *[[Tap dance]] *[[Cheerleading]] Dissolution of the monasteries 's visitors leaving a monastery. People think this could be Colchester Abbey, after it was ruined.'']] The '''Dissolution of the monasteries''' was an event that happened from [[1536]] to [[1540]], when [[England|English]] King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] took away things that the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] church owned. This was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the [[Church of England]]. Deadline A '''deadline''' is a [[time]] by which some must be d. Very often, it means a [[time limit]] that is set in place by an [[authority]] - for example, a [[teacher]] tells students that they must turn in their in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her [[principal]] that every [[student]] had the same chance to do the work. Deadlines may also be set by a [[time horizon]] that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of [[nature]]. For example, by [[sunset]] one must do those tasks requiring [[daylight]]. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself. A way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the [[physical]] [[horizon]] where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things. Dutton's Speedwords '''Dutton Speedwords''' is an auxiliary [[language]]. It can be used by people who speak any other language. Auxiliary means it is a helper for other languages. It is not a whole language by itself. It is also a [[shorthand]] writing system – this means you can use it to write quickly. The method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called ''International Symbolic Script''. A year later, it was called ''Speedwords''. It was changed in 1946 and 1951. to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons. The books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working [[online]]. For example, it makes it faster to type an [[email]]. Another way of writing quickly is [[Pitman's shorthand]]. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word. The words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language. == Other websites == *[http://www.geocities.com/newcongress/index.htm Official Dutton Speedwords site] *[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/2464/ Rap Lin Rie - history of Speedwords and further information] Division '''Division''' is an [[arithmetic]] operation used to find out how many times a [[number]] will go into another number. For example, two goes into nine, four and a half times. This can also be written down as 9 ÷ 2 = 4.5, or 9/2=4,5 or spoken verbally as "nine over two is four and a half." The numbers in the operation have special names: Dividend ÷ divisor = quotient. == See also == * [[multiplication]] (the opposite of division) * [[addition]] * [[subtraction]] * [[Division (mathematics)]] (for additional explanations) == Other meanings == In a ''business organization'', a '''division''' is a unique [[group]] of [[person|people]] who are responsible for a particular [[Product (consumer goods)|product]] or [[function]]. In ''military doctrine'', a '''division''' is a unique cohesive [[unit]]. In the [[United States]] a division totals about 10,000 to 12,000 [[soldier]]s or [[marine]]s. Devil In some [[religion]]s, a '''devil''' is a bad [[spirit]] that tries to create problems for people. Some people also use the words "the Devil" or "[[Satan]]" for the most powerful devil. The word "devil" comes from the Greek word "diabolos" which means "someone who tells lies to hurt you". ("Diabolos" is translated to the English word "[[slanderer]].") The Christian New Testament uses "diabolos" as a title for [[Satan]], and so "The Devil" became another name for Satan in English. In the [[Old Testament]], there is the [[serpent]] and the '''shaitan''', who may be two different characters. "Shaitan" in [[Hebrew]] means "adversary" - an enemy or opponent. Diarrhea '''Diarrhea''' (say "dy-a-re-ya"), also spelled '''diarrhoea''', is [[feces]] that are runny or liquid. In a [[baby]] it is the most common symptom of [[malnutrition]]. This means not eating enough, or well enough. There are many other [[disease]]s that cause it. Most are temporary and related to [[diet]] - the [[food]] you [[eat]]. [[Food safety]] and [[hand washing]] can cut the risk of getting diarrhea. Some causes other than disease are and drinking too much [[alcohol]]. In [[developing nation]]s, malnutrition is a common cause of child death. Diarrhea is often treated with [[aspirin]] or [[glucose]] - these reduce [[pain]] and may stop some symptoms for a while. However, if the root cause is malnutrition, it will not save the child's life. Spending money on [[rehydrating salts]], clean [[water]], and more food is wiser, as the first step. The opposite of diarrhea, firm feces are a sign of good [[digestive health]]. Many people adopt [[vegetarian]] diets with high [[dietary fibre]] to prevent diarrhea and other digestive problems. Dimension A '''dimension''' is a [[measure]] of the [[size]] of something. For example, the three dimensions that give the size of an in the [[world]] are # [[length]] # [[width]] # [[height]] Dimensions can be used to measure [[position]] too. The [[distance]] to a position from a [[start]]ing place can be measured in the length, width and height [[direction]]s. These distances are a measure of the position. Sometimes a fourth dimension, [[time]], is used to show the [[position]] of an [[event]] in [[time]] and [[Space (physics)|space]]. ==Other Dimensions== In [[modern]] [[science]], people use other dimensions. Dimensions like [[temperature]] and [[weight]] can be used to show the position of something in less simple [[Space (physics)|spaces]]. ==Dimensions in mathematics== [[Mathematician]]s also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more [[general]]. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the [[world]]. The [[rule]]s for doing [[arithmetic]] with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules. ==Dimensions and vectors== [[Vector]]s are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in [[engineering]] and [[science]], and sometimes in [[mathematics]]. A vector is a list of [[number]]s. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors. For example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be: # Sally's distance north of Jane # Sally's distance east of Jane # Sally's height above Jane Distance '''Distance''' is how far one thing is from another thing. Distance is a [[measure]] of the space between two things. ===Examples of Distance=== * One [[ball]] is 5 [[Foot_(unit_of_length)|feet]] from another ball. The distance between the two balls is 5 feet. * John walks [[north]] at 6 [[kilometre]]s per [[hour]] for one hour. John has walked a distance of 6 kilometres. * A [[circle]] is a [[curve]]d [[line]]. Each point on the circle is the same distance from the [[centre]] of the circle. ==Displacement== Distance is different from [[displacement vector|displacement]]. Displacement is the difference between a starting point and a finishing point. ===Example of Displacement=== A and B are 1 [[metre]] apart. Tom walks from A to B. Then Tom walks from B back to A. The distance Tom walked is 2 metres. Tom's displacement is 0 metres, because Tom started at A and finished at A. Depth == Depth in Mathematics == :In [[list of mathematics topics|math]], the distance between the [[near|nearest]] end and [[far|farthest]] end of an is its '''depth'''. :For example, Jane [[measure]]s a [[box]]. When she measures the distance between the end of the box closest to her and the end of the box farthest away, Jane measures the box's depth. ''See'' * [[Volume]] * [[Geometry]] * [[Width]] * [[Height]] * [[Length]] == Depth in Liquids == :For [[liquids]], the distance between the top or [[surface]] of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth. :For example, [[water]] is a liquid. If you fill a [[container]] with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth. If the depth is big we say the water is '''deep'''. Dictionary A '''dictionary''' is a [[book]] which explains the meanings of [[word|words]]. The words are arranged in [[alphabetical order]] so that they can be found quickly. The word “dictionary” comes from the [[Latin]] “diction” (“word”). There are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which translate words from one [[language]] to another, dictionaries of [[biography]] which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular [[subject (school)|subject]] (sometimes called a [[thesaurus]]). Some of these come close to being an [[encyclopedia]], but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things (knowledge) and does not explain the use of the language. ==Dictionaries which explain the meaning of words== Dictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear “definition” of the word (e.g. '''''hippopotamus''''' : a [[hoof|hoofed]] [[mammal]] with thick [[skin]], large [[mouth]] and short [[leg|legs]] that lives in [[river|rivers]] and [[lake|lakes]] of [[Africa]].) Good dictionaries will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is [[pronunciation|pronounced]]. Usually the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like “hippopotamus”, but a word like “put” has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain what language the word comes from (e.g. Greek “hippos” horse and “potamus” river). A dictionary may also give the form of the word in different [[grammatical tense|tenses]], [[plural]] form etc. ==Dictionaries which translate into foreign languages== There are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Very often one volume (one book) will translate both ways, so half the book will be translating from English to [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and the other half from Dutch to English. When using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like “right” has two basic meanings in English: 1) “correct”, and 2) the opposite of “left”. Other languages are not like English: they will have different words for these different meanings. A word like “put” has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word “put” will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard). ==Updating dictionaries== Dictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of [[computer]] terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. “gay” or “cool”). The most famous English Dictionary is the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED, they are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a subscription). ==Relevant literature== *Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.): ''Manual of Specialised Lexicography''. Benjamins 1995. *Sandro Nielsen: ''The Bilingual LSP Dictionary''. Gunter Narr 1994. == Other websites == *[http://www.asb.dk/centres/lexc/ Centre for Lexicography] ===Online-dictionaries=== *[http://www.thefreedictionary.com TheFreeDictionary] *[http://www.oed.com/Oxford English Dictionary] *[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ British English dictionary] *[http://www.m-w.com/ American English dictionary] *[http://www.lingvo.ru/ Lingvo: English-Russian-English Dictionary] *[http://www.americana.ru/ Americana: Russian-English Dictionary] *[http://http://search.cari.com.my/dictionary/ English-Malay-Chinese Dictionary] *[http://ekamus.up.md/ Malay-Chinese Dictionary] *[http://dictionary.valodas.com/ Free Online Multi-Language Dictionary] Definition A '''definition''' is an exact [[word]] or [[phrase]] of the meaning, nature, or limits of something. A definition usually answers the question ''what''. ''Defining'' means giving a definition. Other words with this meaning are ''[[description]]'' and ''''. In [[mathematics]], a definition is an exact way of saying what something is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a [[mathematical proof]] about the thing. Denmark {{Infobox Country | fullcountryname = Kingdom of Denmark
[[Danish language|Danish]]: Kongeriget Danmark
| image_flag = Flag of Denmark.svg | image_coa = | image_location = EU location DEN.png | nationalmotto = None | nationalsong = ''[[Der er et yndigt land]]'' | officiallanguages = [[Danish language|Danish]] | populationtotal = 5,470,919 (ranked 108) | populationrank = | populationdensity = 129.04 | countrycapital = [[Copenhagen]] | countrylargestcity = [[Copenhagen]] | areatotal = 43,094 km² (ranked 134) | arearank = | areawater = 1.6 | areawaterpercent = | establishedin = | leadertitlename = Monarch: :[[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]] Prime Minister: :[[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] | currency = [[Danish krone]] (DKK) | utcoffset = +1 | dialingcode = 45 | internettld = .dk }} '''Denmark''' is a country in northern [[Europe]]. 5,400,000 people live there. There are many [[island]]s, but there are no [[mountain]]s. Denmark is on the [[North Sea]]. Denmark is a [[kingdom]]. The [[Capital (city)|capital]] of Denmark is [[Copenhagen]]. In geography, ''Denmark'' is the land in northern Europe, where the Danes live. In the political sense, ''Denmark'' also includes the [[Faroe Islands]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and [[Greenland]] in [[North America]]. All three parts of the country have different languages and culture. In 2006 and 2007, surveyshttp://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=4086092&page=1 ranked Denmark as "the happiest place in the world," based on standards of health, welfare, and education. ==Geography== Denmark is the smallest of the [[Scandinavia]]n countries. The neighbours are [[Germany]] (to the south), [[Sweden]] (to the east), [[Norway]] (to the north) and the [[United Kingdom]] (to the west). The country is surrounded by the sea except for Jutland, the largest part of Denmark. It is connected to Germany by land. To the south-east there is the [[Baltic Sea]], to the west the [[North Sea]], to the north the [[Skagerrak]] and to the north-east the [[Kattegat]]. The western part of Denmark is the [[peninsula]] of [[Jutland]] (pronounced ''yut-land''), bordering Germany. This is the only part of Denmark that is not an island. The rest of Denmark includes 76 islands people live on, and many tiny islands. To the east is the island of [[Bornholm]] in the [[Baltic Sea]], the only place in Denmark where the bedrock can be seen. The country is quite flat. There are many small hills, lakes, creeks, forests and farmland. And nobody lives more than 60 km from the coast. ===Climate=== in most years, there are only a few weeks of [[snow]]. Every ten years or so, the sea around the islands freezes over, but in most winters, it does not. The [[climate]] and [[topography]] are not good for winter sports. Most [[summer]]s are not very hot. People always dress to be ready for rain or wind. There are also very sunny times, but nobody can know ahead of time when these will be. The best time of the year for outdoor activities is the months of May and June until midsummer. ==People== The biggest part (91%) of Denmark's population of just under 5.5 million is of Danish descent. Of the rest 8.9% who are immigrants or descendent from recent immigrants, many come from [[South Asia]] or the [[Middle East]]. There are also small groups of [[Inuit]] from [[Greenland]] and [[Faroe Islands|Faroese]]. ===Language=== The Danes speak [[Danish language|Danish]]. Most Danes speak [[English language|English]], too. Many also speak [[German language|German]]. On the [[Faroe Islands]], [[Faroese language|Faroese]] is spoken, and people living in [[Greenland]] speak [[Greenlandic language|Inuit]]. In the southern part of Jutland, a German minority speaks [[German language|German]]. The Danish language is much like [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. ==Regions and municipalities== Denmark is divided into five regions ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''regioner'', singular: ''region''). The regions are ''Hovedstaden'', ''Midtjylland'', ''Nordjylland'', ''Sjælland'', ''Syddanmark'' and a total of 98 municipalities (Danish: ''kommuner''). ==Traffic== Because of the many islands, Denmark is a country of [[bridge]]s. The main parts of the country, and most of the bigger islands, are connected by [[road]]s and [[railroad]]s. One of the world's longest bridges connects the eastern and the western parts of the country, and there is a large bridge to Sweden also. There is still no bridge across the Baltic Sea to Germany, but it will most likely be built in a few years. The bridge to Sweden was expensive, took a long time to build, and required much planning by engineers. There are still many islands with no bridges to the mainland. People have to go by [[boat]] or [[airplane]] to reach these islands. Many islands will never be reached by bridges, because they are too small or too far away. If the island has too few people, bridges are often not built because it is expensive to build. Somebody has to pay for it, nothing is free. ==Culture== The people of Denmark have always depended on the sea. In earlier days, people could not travel anywhere unless they went by boat. Many Danes were [[fishing|fishermen]] or [[merchant]]s. Even today, many Danes spend much time near or at the sea. [[Farm]]ing has always been one of the main [[Profession|occupations]]. Because of the [[climate]] and the [[soil]], Denmark is a good place for [[agriculture]]. [[Export]] of food to the neighbouring countries is one of the most important sources of [[income]] for the country. Danish hams and cookies are exported throughout the world. Many Danes have become famous around the world, such as the [[scientist]] [[Ole Rømer]], who discovered the [[speed of light]], the [[philosopher]] [[Søren Kierkegaard]], the [[author]] [[Hans Christian Andersen]], the [[physicist]] [[Niels Bohr]] , and [[Lars Ulrich]] from [[Metallica]]. ===Danish food=== and [[lemon]] on dark rye bread (''rugbrød'')]] The [[cuisine]] of Denmark is like the other Nordic countries ([[Finland]], [[Norway]], [[Iceland]], and [[Sweden]]), as well as that of northern [[Germany]], consists mainly [[pork]] [[meat]] and [[fish]]. Traditional Danish food includes ''frikadeller'' (fried [[meatball]]s, often served with [[potato]]es and various sorts of [[sauce|gravy]]). Fish is also widely eaten, especially on the west coast of [[Jutland]]. ===Holidays=== [[Christmas]] is the main feast of the year. Christmas is celebrated on the eve, [[December 24]]. In midwinter, a [[fast]] is celebrated. Children are dressed up, and go from house to house begging for candy. A barrel is smashed with clubs, and the person who hits the last stick is appointed king or queen of cats. Midsummer is celebrated with a huge bonfire in the evening of [[June 23]]. Most Danes have a three week summer holiday in July og August. ===Sports=== The most popular sport in Denmark is [[Football (soccer)|football]] (soccer). Sailing and other water sports are also very popular, the same are sports indoor like [[badminton]], [[handball]] and many others. ==King and Queen== Denmark does not currently have a [[King]]. The [[Queen]] is [[Margrethe II of Denmark| Margrethe II]]. Her husband is called a [[prince]] because he is the son-[[in-law]], not the [[son]], of the previous King. The royal couple have two [[children]]. *[[Frederik]] who married an [[Australia]]n woman named [[Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark|Mary]], and have two kids: **Christian **Isabella *Joachim married a [[British]] woman from [[Hong Kong]] but later divorced in 2005 after being married for 10 years. he has two sons: **Nikolaj **Felix In 2008 Prince Joachim have married for the second time. His new wife is from [[France]] and is called Marie. ==Footnotes== ==Other websites== * [http://denmark.dk Official Portal of Denmark] Death :''Die redirects here, for the game-playing objects, see [[dice]]. For the [[death metal]] band, see [[Death (band)]].'' '''Death''' is a term that is used to describe the permanent ending of [[life]] processes in a [[plant]] or [[animal]] [[life form]]. It can have several causes: * [[Abuse]], resulting in any of the above occurring These are just some of the ways in which life forms die. Life forms which have died are normally described as being '''dead.''' [[Human death]] is very carefully tracked in case of a [[killing]] or something (like a [[disease]]) that may continue to kill other humans. Death is usually followed by [[ritual]]s like the [[funeral]], which have been developed by a [[religion]] or the [[state]]. When people talk about things or events that lead to the death of an organism, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, ''terminal'' is also used quite often. There are many euphemisms for dying. A few examples are, "to pass away", "to go to a better place", and "to kick the bucket." In ordinary life, death is when the heart stops beating and the lungs stop breathing for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know. Diesel-electric A '''diesel-electric''' [[engine]] burns [[diesel]] or [[biodiesel]] [[fuel]]. However, rather than use this [[energy]] directly to run gears, it charges a [[battery]] which more efficiently turns wheels. Some designs also store [[braking energy]] in a [[flywheel]], which can also charge a battery. However, these make the engine even more complex, and add weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for [[city driving]] where [[service station]]s are always available and there is much [[stop and go driving]]. Because they do not require any change or [[investment]] in stations nor much in [[vehicle design]], diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's [[internal combustion engine]]. When properly tuned, they have low [[emission]]s and they use only about one-third of the [[fossil fuel]] of most [[gasoline]] engines powering similar vehicles. [[Honda]] and [[Toyota]] are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, [[hydrogen infrastructure]] is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in [[Iceland]] where there is abundant free [[geothermal electricity]]. Many [[activist]]s feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term. Embassy A foreign '''embassy''' is the official office of one [[country]] in the [[Capital (city)|capital]] of another country. It is where the [[ambassador]] (representative) of the [[home country]] works and it is where most of the [[communication]] (talk) between the two [[governments]] happens. Sometimes if a person lost his [[passport]] he/she can go to their own embassy. Europe of Europe]] '''Europe''' is a [[continent]], the western part of [[Eurasia]]. It is separated from [[Asia]] by a [[tradition]]al [[east]]ern [[border|boundary]] that includes the [[Ural Mountains]] in [[Russia]] and the [[Bosporus]] in [[Turkey]], and from [[Africa]] by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The [[Atlantic Ocean]] is to the west of Europe. There are about 50 countries in Europe. The [[European Union]] is made up of some of the countries in Europe. ==Origin of Name== Europe is named after a person in Greek [[mythology]] called Europa. She was said to have been abducted to [[Crete]] by Zeus. The name later was used for [[Greece]]. Then as the rest of the area we call Europe started to have cities and empires the whole of the area West of the [[Urals]] got called this. == Climate == In Europe there is different climate in different places like in the very north like '''Finland''' it stays snow in winter for 5-6 months and is -30 degrees celcius, however for instance in Spain it is warmer and hardly snows ,except mountains. ==European Union== At this time, much of the continent shares some rulership in a body that is above any country, called the [[European Union]]. ==History== The history of Europe is long and has many turns. Individual specific 'eras' - this is the term meaning long amounts of specific time - can be mentioned: * Pre-historic (Paleolithic, Mesolithic Neolithic) - 2,600,000 years ago to 5000 * Ancient Greek Civilisation (Minoan, Classical, Hellenistic) - 3000-100 BC * Roman Civilisation * Medieval Civilisation (early, high, late) 400 AD-1500 AD * Early Modern Era (Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Discovery, French Revolution and Napeoleonic Wars) 1500-1800 * Industrialisation 1800-1914 * World War I - 1914-1918 * Interwar Period - 1918-1939 * World War II - 1939-1945 * Cold War - 1945-1989 * Contemporary era - 1989-2008 == Countries == * [[Albania]] * [[Andorra]] * [[Austria]] (EU) * [[Belarus]] * [[Belgium]] (EU) * [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] * [[Bulgaria]] (EU) * [[Croatia]] (Official Candidate of EU.) * [[Czech Republic]] (EU) * [[Cyprus]] (EU) ''Note: Completely in Asia.'' * [[Denmark]] (EU) * [[Estonia]] (EU) * [[Finland]] (EU) * [[France]] (EU) * [[Germany]] (EU) * [[Greece]] (EU) * [[Hungary]] (EU) * [[Iceland]] ''Note: Geologically located in Europe and North America.'' * [[Ireland]] (EU) * [[Italy]] (EU) * [[Kosovo]] * [[Latvia]] (EU) * [[Liechtenstein]] * [[Lithuania]] (EU) * [[Luxembourg]] (EU) * [[Malta]] (EU) * [[Moldova]] * [[Monaco]] * [[Montenegro]] * [[Netherlands]] (EU) * [[Norway]] * [[Poland]] (EU) * [[Portugal]] (EU) * [[Romania]] (EU) * [[Republic of Macedonia]] (Official Candidate of EU.) * [[Russia]] ''Note: Geographically in Europe and North Asia.'' * [[San Marino]] * [[Serbia]] * [[Slovakia]] (EU) * [[Slovenia]] (EU) * [[Spain]] (EU) * [[Sweden]] (EU) * [[Switzerland]] * [[Turkey]] (Official Candidate of EU.) * [[Ukraine]] * [[United Kingdom]] (EU) * [[Vatican City]] Encyclopedia An '''encyclopedia''' (or ''encyclopædia'', ''cyclopædia'') is a collection (usually a book) of [[information]] about things [[human]]s [[knowledge|know]]. ==Word origin== The word "encyclopedia" is [[Latin]] and comes from [[Greek language|Greek]]. The words "εγκύκλιος παιδεία", ''enkyklios paideia'' mean "in a circle of teaching". It is from "εγκύκλιος", ''in a circle'' from "κύκλος" ''circle'' and "παιδεία", meaning ''teaching''. The word "εγκύκλιος" can also mean "general": perhaps the people who made the Latin name "encyclopedia" did not understand the Greek word well. Perhaps the name should mean "general teaching". In [[Canada]] and the [[UK]], and some other countries affected by the [[British Empire]], encyclopedia is spelt mostly as "encyclopædia". ==History== People have made encyclopedias for hundreds of years, but the name "encyclopedia" is from the [[16th century]]. ==Types of encyclopedias== There are different types of encyclopedia. Some are general and have pages on lots of topics. The English language ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and German ''[[Brockhaus]]'' are general encyclopedias. Some are about specific topics. For example, there are encyclopedias of [[medicine]] or [[philosophy]]. There are also some encyclopedias that have lots of topics with one [[point of view]] or one cultural [[bias]]. The ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' is one of these. Many [[dictionary|dictionaries]] have a different sort of information as encyclopedias. Examples are the Dictionary of National Biography, the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, and [[Black's Law Dictionary]]. There are two main ways of organizing encyclopedias: from A to Z (the [[alphabet]]ical way) or by categories. Most encyclopedias go from A to Z. There are also printed encyclopedias, and encyclopedias in the computer, such as [[Wikipedia]], the largest computer encyclopedia. ==Encyclopedias== The largest encyclopedia is [[Wikipedia]] in [[English]], which has more than 2 million articles now. The second largest, is the [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]], which is the largest one that is [[print]]ed. Stacy Schiff, a writer, says that Wikipedia is not as good as other encyclopedias because anyone can change it, so some people may write things that are wrong. Also, the way that Wikipedia works means that there is likely to be [[bias]]. {{Cite news |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/07/31/060731fa_fact |first=Stacy |last=Schiff |date=[[31 July]] [[2006]] |title=Know It All |publisher=[[The New Yorker]] |accessdate=[[15 August]] [[2008]] the entire House of Representatives has been banned from Wikipedia several times.}} On the other hand, Tyler Cowen, an [[Economist]], says that other [[non-fiction]] writing may also have the same problems. {{cite news |url=http://www.tnr.com/story.html?id=82eb5d70-13bd-4086-9ec0-cb0e9e8411b3 |title=Cooked Books |first=Tyler |last=Cowen |publisher=The New Republic |date=[[12 March]] [[2008]] |quote=The sad truth is that "non-fiction" has been unreliable from the beginning, no matter how finely grained a section of human knowledge we wish to consider. For instance, in my own field, critics have tried to replicate the findings in academic journal articles by economists using the initial data sets. Usually, it is impossible to replicate the results of the article even half of the time. Note that the journals publishing these articles often use two or three referees--experts in the area--and typically they might accept only 10 percent of submitted papers. |accessdate=[[15 August]] [[2008]]}} == References == Earth science '''Earth science''' is a term that refers to sciences related to the planet [[Earth]]. The four main earth sciences are [[geography]], [[geology]], [[geophysics]] and [[geodesy]]. Earth sciences use other sciences, including [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]], [[chronology]] and [[mathematics]], to build a [[quantitative]] understanding of the Earth. == List of Earth science topics == ===Atmosphere=== *[[Atmospheric chemistry]] *[[Climatology]] *[[Meteorology]] **[[Hydrometeorology]] *[[Paleoclimatology]] ===Biosphere=== * [[Biogeography]] * [[Paleontology]] ** [[Palynology]] ** [[Micropaleontology]] * [[Geomicrobiology]] ===Hydrosphere=== * [[Hydrology]] **[[Limnology]] * [[Hydrogeology]] * [[Oceanography]] **[[Chemical oceanography]] **[[Marine biology]] **[[Marine geology]] **[[Paleoceanography]] **[[Physical oceanography]] === Lithosphere or geosphere=== * [[Geology]] ** [[Economic geology]] ** [[Engineering geology]] ** [[Environmental geology]] ** [[Historical geology]] *** [[Quaternary geology]] ** [[Planetary geology]] ** [[Sedimentology]] ** [[Stratigraphy]] ** [[Structural geology]] * [[Geography]] ** [[Physical geography]] * [[Geochemistry]] * [[Geomorphology]] * [[Geophysics]] ** [[Geochronology]] ** [[Geodynamics]] (see also [[Tectonics]]) ** [[Geomagnetic]]s ** [[Gravimetry]] (also part of [[Geodesy]]) ** [[Seismology]] * [[Glaciology]] * [[Hydrogeology]] * [[Mineralogy]] ** [[Crystallography]] ** [[Gemology]] * [[Petrology]] * [[Speleology]] * [[Volcanology]] ===Pedosphere=== * [[Soil science]] ** [[Edaphology]] ** [[Pedology (soil study)|Pedology]] ===Systems=== * [[Environmental science]] * [[Geography]] ** [[Human geography]] ** [[Physical geography]] * [[Gaia hypothesis]] ===Others=== * [[Cartography]] * [[Geoinformatics]] ([[GIS]]) * [[Geostatistics]] * [[Geodesy]] and [[Surveying]] * [[NASA Earth Science Enterprise]] Earth 's [[Apollo program|Apollo]] 17]] orbit: 149,600,000 km (1.00 AU) from Sun diameter: 12,756.3 km mass: 5.972e24 kg '''Earth ''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]]. It is one of the four ''terrestrial'' planets in the [[Solar System]] meaning it has a mostly [[solid]] surface. The other three are [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], [[Venus]] and [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. It is often called ''The Earth'', ''Planet Earth'', ''the World'' ''Terra'', and ''home''. Earth is [[home]] to millions of species of plants and animals, including [[humans]]. Earth is the only place in the [[universe]] where [[life]] is known to exist. [[Science]] shows that the Earth formed around 4.5 billion years ago. The things that live on Earth have completely changed its air or [[atmosphere]]. This is called a [[biosphere]]. About 71% of Earth's surface is covered in [[salt water]] [[ocean]]s. Earth is the only place in the universe where [[liquid]] [[water]] is known to exist. The other 29% is made of rocky land in the shape of [[continent]]s and [[island]]s. Earth interacts with other objects in the [[Solar System]], specifically the [[Sun]] and [[the Moon]].The Earth orbits or goes around the [[Sun]] roughly once every 365.25 days. One spin is called a ''[[day]]'' and one orbit around the Sun is called a [[year]]. This is why we have 365 days in year. Earth has only one [[moons|moon]], known as [[the Moon]]. == History == [[Scientist]]s think that the Earth and the other [[planet]]s formed about 4.5 billion years ago. They were made of the leftover [[gas]] from the [[nebula]] [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|that made the Sun]]. Some scientists think that the Moon might have been made when a small planet, sometimes called ''Theia'', crashed into Earth and bit broke off - making the Moon. [[Condensation|Condensing]] [[water vapour]] or steam, [[comet]]s and [[asteroid]]s hiting the Earth made the [[ocean]]s. Within a billion years the first [[life]] [[evolution|evolved]]. Some life developed [[photosynthesis]] which lets plants make [[food]] from the [[Sun]]'s [[light]]. This released a lot of [[oxygen]] into the [[atmosphere]] or air, making the Earth's surface for life. This oxygen also formed the [[ozone]] layer which protects the Earth from bad [[ultraviolet]] [[radiation]] from the [[Sun]]. This protection made it possible for things to move from the deep ocean to the surface. This long ago almost all land was in one place, called a ''[[continent|supercontinent]]''. The earliest known supercontinent was called ''Rodina''. Scientists think that soon after this there was a time when the Earth was almsot entirely covered by glaciers. This is called ''Snowball Earth'' [[theory]]. == What it is made of == s, [[Mercury]], [[Venus]] and [[Mars]]]] Earth is terrestrial planet. This means it is made up of solid [[rock]] unlike a [[gas giant]] such as [[Jupiter]]. It is the largest out of the four terrestrial planets in [[mass]] and [[diameter]]. Earth also has the strongest [[gravitational]] and [[magnetic field]]. ==== Shape ==== kilometres) divided by [[pi]]. This is because originally one [[metre]] was defined as one 10,000,000th of the distance from the North [[pole]] to the equator, through [[Paris]], [[France]]. The highest point on Earth is the peak of [[Mount Everest]] at 8,848 m above sea level. The lowest natural point is the bottom of the [[Mariana Trench]] at 10,911 metres below sea level. Becuase of the bulge at the middle or the [[equator]], the farthest point from the Earth's centre is the top of [[Mount Chimborazo]] in [[Ecuador]] ==== Internal Structure ==== Inside the Earth is similar to the other terrestrial planets. It has an outer, solid [[rock]] layer called the [[crust (geology)|crust]]. Everything that lives on Earth is on top of the crust. Underneath that is a layer of thick, [[liquid]] rock called the [[mantle]]. Under that is a thin liquid layer called the outer [[planetary core|core]] and then the solid [[iron]] inner core. The thickness of the crust changes. On land the average is between 30-50 [[kilometre]]s thick. Under the [[ocean]]s in some places it is only 6 kilometres thick. The inside of the Earth is very hot, the outer core may be as much as 7000 degrees. ==== Tectonic Plates ==== showing the Earth's major tectonic plates]] According to plate tectonics the Earth's crust basically ''floats'' on the thick liquid rock of the mantle below. The crust is split up into parts called ''plates''. These plates interact as they move about causing [[earthquake]]s and creating [[volcano]]es and [[mountain]] ranges. The place where plates meet are called plate boundaries. There are three types of plate boundary: ''constructive'', ''destructive'' and ''transform''. *At a ''constructive plate boundary'' two plates move away from each other, and hot [[magma]] (liquid rock) is pushed upwards through the cracks. These kinds of boundaries make [[ocean]] rifts, undersea volcanoes or ridges. An example of this kind of plate boundary is the [[island]] of [[Hawaii]]. *At a ''destructive plate boundary'', two plates move towards each other. This forms islands, [[volcano]]es and high [[mountain]] ranges. The [[Himalayas]] were made by this process. * At a ''transform plate boundary'', two plates move parrallel to each other. As they move the grind against each other. This kind of plate boundary causes fault lines and [[earthquake]]s. ==== Surface ==== The Earth changes greatly from place to place. Over 70% of the Earth surface is covered by [[water]]. The underwater surface has many of the same features as the above sea with [[volcano]]s, [[mountain]]s and trenches or [[canyon]]s. The 30% not covered by water is mostly [[forest]]s, [[desert]]s, [[plain]]s, [[mountain]]s and [[plateau]]s. [[Human]] [[civilisation]] has led to increasing urbanisation - the growth of [[city|cities]]. Many things can change the surface of the Earth. [[Plate tectonics]] is main cause of change but their are others such as [[erosion]] from [[wind]] and [[rain]], erosion by the [[ocean]]s or [[meteorite]] impacts. There are three main types of rock that make up the Earth's surface: * ''[[Igneous rock]]'' is made when [[magma]] or [[lava]] from the mantle reaches the surface and cools. as it gets colder it turns into rock or ''solidifies''. * ''[[Sedimentary rock]]'' is made from sediment, like [[sand]] or small bits of other rock, that has been crushed and packed tightly together. * ''[[Metamorphic rock]]'' which is made whem either of the other two types are changed by high or low [[temperature]]s and [[pressure]]s. ==== Hydrosphere ==== All the [[water]] on Earth, on land or in the [[atmosphere]], is part of the ''hydrosphere''. No other [[planet]] humans know of has a hydrosphere. About 97.5% of all water is [[salt water]]. About half the fresh water is currently [[ice]]. The oceans absorb or soak up [[carbon dioxide]], a [[gas]] that adds to the [[greenhouse effect]] and global warming. ==== Atmosphere ==== A planet's [[atmosphere]] is a layer of different [[gas]]es surrounding it. It is kept there by [[gravity]]. The Earth's atmosphere is made of roughly 78% [[nitrogen]], 21% [[oxygen]] and small amounts of other gases. This mixture is often called ''air''. Farther up there is a layer of [[ozone]] gas called the ''Ozone layer''. Ozone absorbs [[ultraviolet]] [[radiation]] from [[the Sun]]. Ultraviolet radiation is dangerous to [[people]], so without the Ozone layer [[life]] wouldn't be possible. The atmosphere also protects the earth from crashes with [[meteor]]s and small [[asteroid]]s. This is because they burn up due to all the [[friction]] as they fly through it. It also helps to keep Earth warm. Some gases including [[carbon dioxide]] and [[methane]] act like a blanket around the Earth, they trap heat under them, keeping the Earth warm. This is called the ''[[greenhouse effect]]'' When humans build factories and power plants to make electricity we burn things. When we burn things it lets out a lot of carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide goes up into the atmosphere and traps more heat. This is called ''[[global warming]]''. It might be very dangerous for life on Earth if this continues. ==== Weather, Climate and the water Cycle ==== Hot air rises. As it rises it gets colder again and falls. This is called ''convection currents'' When hot air meets cold air different weather effects happen. ''Convection currents'' are the cause of almost all [[weather]] on Earth. When it gets hot on the surface [[water]] [[evaporation|evaporates]] and becomes [[steam]] or water vapour. This hot water vapour rises. As it rises it gets colder. When gets cold enough it turns back into water again. This causes the clouds and rain. It is called the [[water cycle]]. == Orbit and Rotation == The Earth takes about 24 hours to rotate or spin around once. This is called a day. Earth takes roughly 365 days to go around [[the Sun]]. This is called a [[year]]. The Earth is, on average, 150 million miles away from the Sun, and moving at a speed of 30 kilometers a second or 108,000 miles an hour. [[The Moon]] orbits the Earth at an average distance of 250,000 miles. It is tidally locked to Earth, which means it always has the same side facing the Earth. It takes roughly one [[month]] to complete one orbit. Only six people in history have ever seen the other side of the Moon. The Earth is part of the [[Solar System]] and orbits the sun along with thousands of small objects and eight [[planet]]s. The Sun and therefore the Solar System are currently traveling through the Orion Arm of the [[Milky Way]] [[Galaxy]] and will be for the next 10,000 years or so. == References == ==See also== *[[List of planets]] *[[Geology]] *[[Solar System]] *[[Outer space]] == Other websites == *http://www.solarviews.com/eng/earth.htm *http://www.earth.nasa.gov/science/questions.html *http://www.geody.com/ Et cetera '''Et cetera''' means "and the rest" in [[Latin]]. It is often used in [[English language|English]] to continue a [[list]] that is longer than what can be normally written. People most often write "et cetera" as '''etc'''. Very rarely, it is also written "&c" because the , or the "&", is the same as "et". It is also the symbol for "and". Some people write it as "ect", but that is wrong. *"Jane has a lot of pets. She has cats, dogs, cows, horses, kangaroos, rabbits, '''etc.'''" *"Robert ordered a large amount of groceries in order to stock for later. He ordered carrots, tomatoes, potatoes, eggs, '''etc.'''" Experiments #Redirect [[experiment]] Experiment An '''experiment''' is a test of an idea invented by someone, usually a [[scientist]]. An experiment is used to test a theory--to see how well the real world matches the theory. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. One important observation about experiments is that they can tell us if a theory is false. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. For example, if we invent a theory that says ''All houses are made of wood'', we cannot say that it is true because all the houses we have seen are made of wood. But, if we find a house that ''is not'' made of wood, we know that our theory is false. [[Benjamin Franklin]] did a well known experiment by flying a [[kite]] during a [[thunderstorm]]. He did the experiment to see if [[lightning]] was made of [[electricity]]. Experiments are not the same as (belief) or other ways to find [[truth]] because experiments must have . They begin by testing falsehood to find out truth. "The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong." - [[Karl Popper]] Ethics '''Ethics''' is the part of [[philosophy]] that talks about [[Goodness|good]] and [[evil]]. Ethics tries to answer questions like: * What actions are good? What actions are evil? * How can we tell the difference? * Are good and evil the same for everyone? * How should we make hard decisions that might help or hurt other people? ==Ideas about ethics== Some [[philosopher]]s call ethics the "[[science]] of [[morality]]". ''Morality'' is what someone thinks or feels is good or bad. There are many different moralities, but they share some things. For example most people think that murder (killing somebody) is wrong. Some philosophers hope to find more things that moralities share. They think that ethics should use the [[scientific method]] to study things that people think are good or bad. Other philosophers think that ethics is separate from morality. They do not think that ethics can be studied using the [[scientific method]] and they think it is closer to [[metaphysics]]. Some of them think like [[Platonism|platonists]] about what is good and bad. Other philosophers believe that ethics is [[subjectivism|subjective]]. This means that they think that what is right for me is whatever I say is right. This means that ethics is just a person's own morality. These philosophers do not think that ethics is the same for all people. ==What is ethics used for?== Understanding ethics can help people decide what to do when they have choices. Many philosophers think that doing anything or making any choice is a part of ethics. Ethics is part of other fields of study in many ways. Here are some ways: * Ethics is part of the study of [[religion]]. In religion, people often learn what is good or bad from what they believe about [[God]] (or gods). Some important ideas about what is good or bad have come from religion. * Some theories of [[economics]] say ethics has to do with [[money]]. Money is a big part of most people's lives. Thinking about morality can be important in economics. For example, there is a saying about ethics taken from the [[Bible]] that 'the love of money is the root of all kinds of [[evil]]' (1 Timothy). The philosophy of [[Marxism]] also says that a few people using money in the wrong way can hurt many other people. * Government policy can be affected by what [[politics|politicians]] think is ethical. Politicians try to create [[laws]] that help everyone do what is right. Political debates happen when the people who make public policy do not agree about what is right. * In work, thinking about ethics can help with hard questions. Work can be like both economics and politics. Workers have to make money and follow laws. But the best way to do both is not always easy to know. The study of this is called [[business ethics]] * People like [[doctor]]s and [[nurse]]s have to make choices about how to [[care]] for people. Sometimes the person being cared for, their [[family]] or the doctor do not agree what is best for them. Also, choices have to made if there is not enough money for all people to get the help they need. The study of this is called [[medical ethics]] * Discussing ethics can also be a way to stop people fighting or starting a war. By talking about ethics, people hope to get what they want without being violent. This works when all people agree that peace is very important. But not everyone agrees about what is right or wrong. So, sometimes anger can make it hard to talk without fighting. Along with [[Aesthetics]] ethics forms part of [[axiology]] the philosophy of what people like. == See also == * [[Utilitarianism]] * [[The Republic]] is a book by [[Plato]] that says that people who have power should use ethics to make choices. * [[The Prince]] is a book by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] that says that people who have power should not use ethics to make choices. E Prime '''E Prime''' (it means '''English Prime''') is a way of speaking [[English language|English]] without using the verb [[to be|"to be"]] in any way ("be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like "[[to become]]," "[[to remain]]," and "[[to equal]]" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the "thing" does not actually "act". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement "Mistakes were made" to "Joe made mistakes." This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate. ==What E Prime is== D. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of General Semantics. The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently. Students of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say "This cat '''is''' soft" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside "object" of the cat is the "same as" the inside experience of "softness". Instead, E Prime users say "This cat '''feels''' soft TO ME" to remind themselves of the following: 1. That their experience of "softness" involves both the outside "object" called "cat" and the eyes, hands, brain and nervous system of the observer. 2. That someone else might experience different aspects of the cat. 3. That they themselves might experience something different at a different time or in different circumstances. (The cat might scratch them, or be wet or matted with dirt.) ==What E Prime is not== E Prime and General Semantics are not different languages or forms of English. Instead, they provide different ways of thinking and talking about the world. Although languages like Arabic, Turkish, and Cantonese do not have a separate verb for "to be," they do have the idea of "being." For example, an English speaker might say "This apple is red." An Arabic speaker might say "This apple red." Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to only say that "This apple looks red to me" to remind themselves that "seeing red" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple. Many teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than "to be." To them, using other, more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime. English As A Second Language #redirect [[English language learning and teaching]] Einstein on the Beach '''''Einstein on the Beach''''' is an [[opera]] written by the [[minimalist]] [[composer]] [[Philip Glass]] and theater director and designer [[Robert Wilson]]. It was first acted for an audience in Avignon, [[France]] in [[1976]]. It is a single act opera, approximately five hours long with no [[intermission]]. Given the minimalist ([[repetitive]]) nature of the music, audience members are free to enter and leave the opera as they wish. English :''Were you looking for '''''''''', the full english Wikipedia version of Simple?'' The word '''English''' can mean: * The [[English people|people of England]]. * From or about the country [[England]] (some people say "English" when they are thinking of things or people from other parts of the [[United Kingdom]], but this is not correct.) * The [[English language]] * English studies: "''I am studying English''" can mean: **the study of English [[literature]] or any literature in the English language, either at a [[university]] or at [[school]], this is usually [[grammar]], a [[subject (school)|subject]] at school for people who already speak English as a [[first language]], **the study of [[Learning English|English as a foreign language]] * A place in the United States: [[English, Indiana|English]], [[Indiana]], named after [[William Hayden English]], an Indiana politician that served in the [[United States House of Representatives]] and ran for [[Vice President of the United States]] in 1880. * The [[Amish]] word for somebody who is not in their group - the Amish are a group of people in the [[United States|USA]]. * English (font) - a type or font size (14 point) (how big the writing is on your computer, for example) * In the United States, people give the name "English" to the "Avoirdupois" system of [[Units of measurement|measurement]]. Ethnic group An '''ethnic group''' is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some way. They may all have the same [[ancestor]]s, speak the same [[language]], or have the same [[religion]]. Sometimes almost all of the people in one [[country]] are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries. ==List of ethnic groups== *[[Afro-Caribbean]] (found in the [[Caribbean]]) *[[Albanians]] (found in [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]]) *[[Arabs]] (found in [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]]) *[[Armenians]] (found in [[Armenia]] and [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]) *[[Basques]] (found in the [[Basque]] area in [[Spain]] and [[France]]) *[[Bengalis]] (found in [[Bangladesh]], [[West Bengal]], and [[Tripura]] *[[Berbers]] (found in northwest [[Africa]]) *[[Bosniaks]] (found in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]) *[[Cantonese people]] (found in [[Hong Kong]], [[Macao]], and the [[Guangdong]] area of [[China]]) *[[Cornish people]] (found in [[Cornwall]]) *[[Croats]] (found in [[Croatia]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]) *[[Czechs]] (found in the [[Czech Republic]]) *[[Danes]] (found in [[Denmark]] and [[Germany]]) *[[Dogon people]] (found in [[Mali]] in west [[Africa]]) *[[Dutch people]] (found in [[the Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]) *[[English people]] (sometimes called [[Anglo-Saxons]], found in [[England]]) *[[Finns]] (found in [[Scandinavia]]) *[[French people]] (found in France and countries next to it) *[[Germans]] (found in [[Germany]], [[Austria]] and nearby countries) *[[Greeks]] (found in [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]]) *[[Han]] (found in [[China]], as well as [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]], [[Christmas Island]] and [[Indonesia]]) *[[Italians]] (found in [[Italy]]) *[[Igbo people]] (found in [[Nigeria]]) *[[Irish people]] (found in [[Ireland]]) *[[Jews]] (found throughout the world, but mostly in [[Israel]], [[Europe]] and [[North America]]) *[[Kashmiris]] (found in [[Pakistan]], [[India]], and [[China]]). *[[Kazakhs]] (found in [[Kazakhstan]]) found in [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]]) *[[Malays]] (found in [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Brunei]] and part of [[Thailand]]) *[[Mandé people]] (found in [[Gambia]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Burkina Faso]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]]) *[[Mongols]] (found in [[Mongolia]], [[China]] and [[Russia]]) found in the [[Americas]]) *[[Norwegians]] (found in [[Scandinavia]]) *[[Punjabi people]] (found in the Indian and Pakistani [[Punjabs]]) [[nomadic]], found worldwide) *[[Russians]] (found in [[Russia]] and nearby countries) found in the [[Lappland]] area of [[Scandinavia]]) *[[Scots]] (found in Scotland) *[[Serbs]] (found in [[Serbia]] and nearby countries) *[[Slovaks]] (found in [[Slovakia]]) *[[Slovenes]] (found in [[Slovenia]]) *[[Swedes]] (found in Scandinavia) *[[Tamils]] (found in southern [[India]] and northern [[Sri Lanka]]) *[[Turks]] (found in [[Turkey]] and [[Cyprus]]) *[[Welsh people]] (found in Wales) ESL #redirect [[English language learning and teaching]] EAL #redirect [[English language learning and teaching]] Ebola picture of Ebola virus]] '''Ebola''', pronounced E- Bo-la, is a ''hemorrhagic fever'' [[virus]]. (Hemorrhagic means causes very heavy bleeding.) It is a very deadly [[disease]]. 50-90% of people who get Ebola die. People who get [[infectious disease|infected]] with Ebola virus get the disease ''Ebola hemorrhagic fever''. ==How people get Ebola== In people, ''transmission'' (giving the virus to someone) happens because of touching fluids with the virus. People with Ebola hemorrhagic (bleeding) fever bleed very much. They have [[blood]] in [[diarrhea]] and [[vomit]]. They bleed from their [[nose]]s, [[mouth]]s, and [[genital]]s. These liquids are very infectious (they can make other people get the virus.) ==Symptoms of Ebola== When people get Ebola the first [[symptom]]s look like some other diseases. People get [[fever]], feel very tired, have [[headache]] (pain in the head), pain in the [[stomach]], pain in [[joints]], and pain in the [[throat]]. Sometimes people think they have other diseases like [[malaria]] or [[typhoid fever]]. Later, people get much more sick. They have very bad bleeding. They get [[shock]]: low [[blood pressure]], fast pulse ([[heart]] rate), and low [[circulatory system|blood circulation]] to the body. This causes [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s to get very sick. The organs stop working. This is called ''organ failure''. Then, even if they make it to a [[hospital]], ''most'' die. Ebola cannot be caught through the air. ==Treatment of Ebola== There is no special treatment for Ebola hemorrhagic fever. But if people get care from [[doctor]]s and [[nurse]]s more live. This is called supportive care. Supportive care can be fluids and blood given in people's veins. It can be medicines to make their blood pressure and blood circulation better. When people in a place get Ebola, it is called an ''outbreak''. If doctors see an outbreak is happening, they try to stop it. They stop it by isolating people with infection. This means keeping the blood and fluids from people with Ebola from touching other people. Then other people do not get the virus. When an outbreak happens, many people come to try and help stop it. The [[World Health Organization]] is the most important group that tries to stop Ebola outbreaks. [[Scientist]]s are trying to find a [[vaccine]] for Ebola. Ecology '''Ecology''' is the [[science]] that studies the interactions of [[organism]]s with their [[environment]] and with one another. It comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''oikos'' ([[habitat]]) and ''logos'' (study). It deals with [[energy]] relationships and tracing them to our [[sun]], the source of energy used in [[photosynthesis]]. Ecology, [[biology]] and other [[Life Science]]s overlap with [[zoology]] and [[geography]], which describe the things that ecology tries to predict, and [[energy economics]] which describes mostly human [[food chain]]s and [[trophic level]]s. [[Terrestrial ecoregion]] and [[climate change]] research are two areas where ecologists (people studying ecology) now focus. == Ecology in politics == Ecology starts many powerful philosophical and political movements - including the [[conservation movement]], [[wellness movement]], [[environmental movement]], and [[ecology movement]] we know today. When these are combined with [[peace movement]]s and the [[Six Principles]], they are called [[green movement]]s. In general, these put [[ecosystem health]] first on a list of human moral and political priorities, as the way to achieve better human health and social harmony, and better [[economics]]. People with these beliefs are called [[political ecologist]]s. Some have organized into the [[Green Parties]], but there are actually political ecologists in most political parties. They very often use arguments from ecology to advance [[policy]], especially [[forest policy]] and [[energy policy]]. Also, ecology means that it is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms. == Ecology includes economics == Many ecologists also deal with human [[economics]]: * [[Lynn Margulis]] says that economics studies how humans make a living, while ecology studies how every other animal makes a living. *[[Mike Nickerson]] says that "economy is three-fifths of ecology", since ecosystems create resources and dispose of waste, which the economy assumes is done "for free". [[Ecological economics]] and [[human development theory]] try to separate the economic questions from others, but it is difficult. Many people think economics is just part of ecology now, and that economics that ignores it is wrong. "[[Natural capital]]" is an example of one theory combining both. == Ecology mirrors anthropology == Sometimes ecology is compared to [[anthropology]], because both use a lot of methods to study one thing we cannot live without. Anthropology is about how our bodies and minds are affected by our environment, while ecology is about how our environment is affected by our bodies and minds. There is even a type of anthropology called [[ecological anthropology]], which studies how people interact with the environment. [[Antoine de Saint-Exupery]] stated: "The earth teaches us more about ourselves than all the books. Because it resists us. Man discovers himself when he measures himself against the obstacle." Economics '''Economics''' is the [[study]] of how people make [[choice]]s to satisfy their [[want]]s. There are three main ideas that are useful for understanding economics. === Three ideas === *[[Want]]s *[[Scarcity]] *[[Choice]]s '''Economics''' is a [[science]] that studies how people try to make use of the limited [[resource]]s in the world to satisfy their wants. People's resources include their money, their free time, and their ability to work and make money. People have many wants for goods, such as the want for [[food]], for houses to live in, and a new car to drive. However, there is only a limited amount of resources and goods available, which is called [[scarcity]]. For example, a person only has a limited amount of money and a limited amount of free time. This means that they have to make choices about how to spend these scarce resources on the different goods that they want. == The advantage, when people work together == When people work together, there is an advantage for everybody. People concentrate on things they have very good skills off and produce especially theese goods (services). This principle can be used by countries and is an important argument for the free [[trade]] between economics. == The subjects and objects in economics == The subjects of economic are households, business companies, the state and foreign countries. '''Households''' offer their production factors to the companies. This includes work, ground, capital (machines, buildings) and information. They get income whereof they buy and consume goods. '''Business companies''' produce and sell goods and buy production factors from the households and other companies. '''The state''' is divided in institutions and organisations. For example the United States of America consists of 50 states, where every state has his own area of responsibility. The state distributes the earnings from the business companies and households. These payments are called transfer payments. Public goods like streets or university education should be available for everyone. The last subject are '''foreign countries''' this includes all households, business companies und state institutions, which aren´t based in the mother land. They demand and supply goods from abroad. The objects in the economic are consumer goods, capital goods and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified in usage goods for example toilet paper, in purpose goods for example a car and in services for example a cleaning lady. Capital goods are goods, which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples for these are buildings, equipment and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information and environment. == General economic rules == * All people have to decide between alternative options * The charge of a good is what you give up for the good * People react on incentives. This means people probably buy something earlier if it´s on special offer. * Markets are usually good for the organisation of economic life. In the free market economy the scarce resources will be shared through the local decision of many households and business companies. The “invisible hand” of the market ([[Adam Smith]]): Markets convert the egoism of each person into increasing wealth for the general public. * The government could improve the markt results * The living standard of a country depends on the skills to produce services and goods. Productivity is the amount of the produced goods divided by working hour. * When there is too much money in circulation, the prices rise up. This is called [[inflation]] == History == * [[18th century]] analysis of [[wealth]] * [[classical economics]] * [[Marxist economics]] * [[Austrian economics]] * [[neoclassical economics]] * [[welfare economics]] Economists are strongly influenced by their times, for example, [[Karl Marx]] lived in a time where [[worker]]s' conditions were very poor. [[John Maynard Keynes]] lived through the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. Today's economists can look back and understand why they made their judgements, and try to make better ones. == Branches of economics == The two main branches of economics are [[microeconomics]] and [[macroeconomics]]. Microeconomics looks at the behavior of individuals, homes, businesses or even groups of these. Microeconomics looks at prices of things and of services. It wants to help people decide how to divide society's resources. To do this, microeconomics wants to understand how decisions are made and how these small decisions affect bigger things. Macroeconomics looks at all the economy. It tries to explain the causes of numbers like [[national income]], [[employment]] rates, and [[inflation]]. Connecting the two branches has been important and the general idea since the early [[1980s]]. A good macroeconomic theory is based on microeconomics, meaning one can explain macroeconomic events using microeconomics for individuals. There are a number of smaller branches that do not fit neatly into one of the two main branches, including: * [[behavioral economics]] * [[development economics]] * [[ecological economics]] * [[economic geography]] * [[environmental economics]] * [[energy economics]] * [[financial economics]] * [[human development theory]] including [[welfare economics]] * [[information economics]] * [[international economics]] * [[labor economics]] * [[managerial economics]] * [[resource economics]] * [[urban economics]] == Other websites == * [http://www.bankdirectory.ws/ All banks of the world] Chemical element A '''chemical element''' is a [[substance]] that cannot be divided into smaller chemical parts. The smallest [[particle]] of such an element is an [[atom]]. Atoms are made up of [[protons]], [[neutron]]s, and [[electron]]s. A pure element contains only one kind of atom. The number of protons in the atoms of an element is known as that element's [[atomic number]]. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their [[Nucleus (physics)|nuclei]] are of the chemical element [[carbon]], and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are of the element [[uranium]]. 117 different chemical elements are known to modern [[chemistry]]. 90 of these elements can be found in [[nature]], and the others can only be made in [[laboratory|laboratories]]. The first man-made element was [[Technetium]] in 1937. All man-made elements are [[Radiation|radioactive]] and unstable. Chemical elements are commonly arranged in the [[periodic table]]. Atoms of the same element, whose nuclei contain a different number of neutrons, are said to be different [[isotope]]s of the element. Chemical elements are also given a unique ''chemical symbol''. Chemical symbols of elements come from their English or Latin names (For example, carbon has the chemical symbol 'C', and sodium has chemical symbol 'Na', after the Latin ''natrium''). Elements can combine (react) to form pure [[Chemical compound|compound]]s (such as [[water]], [[salt]]s, [[oxide]]s, and [[organic compound]]s). In many cases, these compounds have a fixed composition and their own [[structure]] and [[property|properties]]. Some elements, particularly metal elements mix together in any [[proportion]] to form new structures. Such new structures are not compounds. They are called [[mixture]]s. ===Classification=== Elements can be classified based on [[physical state]]s. At room temperature and pressure, most elements are [[solid]]s, only 11 are [[gas]]es and 2 are [[liquid]]s. Elements can also be classified into [[metal]]s and [[non-metal]]s. There are many more metals than non-metals. However, a few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals. These elements are called [[semi-metals]] (or metalloids). ==See also== * [[Periodic table]] Egypt {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname= جمهورية مصر العربية Gumhūriyyet Maṣr el-ʿArabiyyah Arab Republic of Egypt| image_flag=Flag of Egypt.svg | image_coa=Coat_of_arms_of_Egypt.svg | image_location=locationEgypt.png | nationalmotto=| nationalsong =| officiallanguages = [[Egyptian Arabic language|Egypt Arabic]]| countrycapital = [[Cairo]] | countrylargestcity = [[Cairo]] | establishedin= | leadertitlename = | areatotal=980,869 km²| arearank=20th| areawater= | areawaterpercent= 0.632 | areami² = | populationtotal = 75,000,000| populationrank= | populationdensity= | population_estimate_year = | currency = Egyptian Pound| utcoffset=- | dialingcode=+20| internettld= .eg }} '''Egypt''' is a [[country]] in northeast [[Africa]]. Its capital city is [[Cairo]]. Egypt is famous for its very old [[monument]]s, such as the [[Pyramid]]s and the Sphinx. Egypt has been an independent country since [[1922]]. It is a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[Arab League]]. It was a [[republic]] from [[1952]] after the [[revolution]] of [[1952]] by the leader [[Gamal Abd Alnaasar]] Egypt is a large country, but a large portion of it is [[desert]]. Most people live in areas around the coast of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and along the [[Nile]] River. This includes the cities of [[Alexandria]], [[Aswan]], and [[Port Said]]. Not many people live in the desert. Today, Egypt has about 70 million people. Egypt is divided into 27 areas, called [[Governorates of Egypt]]. The [[Egyptian Parliament]] sits in [[Cairo]] and makes [[law]]s for the whole country. Today, the President is [[Hosni Mubarak]]. Today, the people of Egypt are mostly [[Sunni Muslims]]. There are still some Christians in Egypt today. Many of these belong to the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]]. Many famous people are from Egypt. Some of these include [[Omar Sharif]], who was an international actor, [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], who was the first person from [[Africa]] to lead the [[United Nations]], and four [[Nobel Prize]] winners: [[Anwar Sadat]], who won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1978]], [[Naguib Mahfouz]], who won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1988]], [[Ahmed Zewail]], who won the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in [[1999]], and [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], who won the Nobel Peace Prize in [[2005]]. Egypt's climate is very extreme. It is either very cold or very hot, depending on the time. == Other websites == [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Atlantis/2761/pyramids/pyramids.html Djoser Pyramid] *[http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/Shores/7037/pyramids/pyramids.htm Djoser] Everything2 '''Everything2''' or '''E2''' is a [[website]]. It lets people make pages about many different things, and some people use it as a [[diary]]. E2 users create pages called ''nodes'' and add stuff in ''writeups''. Only logged-in users can create writeups. Only the person who created the writeup or someone who the website owners (called "gods") choose can edit the writeup. On the other hand, on [[Wikipedia]], anyone can edit pages, but on Everything2 only those who can edit the writeup can edit pages. Everything2 does not require a like Wikipedia does. So, it is possible to have more than one article (writeups) under the same title (node), each by different authors, and presenting different points of view. == Other websites == * [http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=124 Everything2 website] * [http://everything2.com/?node=Wikipedia Everything2.com article about Wikipedia] Edit To '''edit''' a means to the order of [[word]]s or [[picture]]s, or add new words or pictures, usually so that the edited [[product]] better represents what the '''editor''', the person doing the '''editing''', meant to show. The word ''editor'' can also mean: * a [[computer]] [[application]] for editing an electronic [[text]] or [[media]] document * a [[machine]] for editing [[video|video tape]] or [[film|movie film]] * a person who edits [[movies]] Ecological yield '''Ecological yield''' is the harvestable [[growth]] of an [[ecosystem]]. It is most commonly measured in [[forestry]] - in fact [[sustainable forestry]] is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year, within a given patch of forest. However, the concept is also applicable to [[water]], and [[soil]], and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed - the so-called [[renewable resource]]s. The [[carrying capacity]] of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt). [[Nature's services]] analysis calculates the global yield of the [[Earth]]'s [[biosphere]] to humans as a whole. This is said to be greater in size than the entire human economy. However, it is more than just yield, but also the natural processes that [[increase biodiversity]] and [[conserve habitat]] which result in the total value of these services. "Yield" of '''ecological commodities''' like wood or water, useful to humans, is only a part of it. Very often an ecological yield in one place offsets an [[ecological load]] in another. [[Greenhouse gas]] released in one place, for instance, is fairly evenly distributed in the [[atmosphere]], and so [[greenhouse gas control]] can be achieved by creating a [[carbon sink]] literally anywhere else. [[Ecocide]] is thought by some [[green economists]] to be accelerated by [[debt]] instruments which demand a [[yield (economics)]] greater than the ecological capacity to renew. This is a major question in [[monetary reform]]. Experience economy The '''experience economy''' is the intangible [[service economy]] that customers experience directly. In [[moral purchasing]], [[Natural Capitalism]] and other theories of how consumers make choices, they are actually choosing experiences or [[comprehensive outcome]]s of their choices. For instance to [[buy local]] is to choose a whole experience of local suppliers, such as in a [[farmers market]] or [[Slow Food]], that is quite different than the experience associated with [[factory food]] or [[fast food]]. Execution '''Execution''' is where [[state]] authorities [[kill]] someone for having committed an extremely serious [[crime]], usually [[treason]] or special-circumstance [[murder]]. In most [[country|countries]] where the [[death penalty]] is still provided for by [[law]], using it is an option available to the sentencing [[judge]]: even if the jury or judicial panel recommends the death penalty, the presiding judge still has the option to lock the convicted person in a [[prison]] for the rest of their life. , an innocent Queen of England is beheaded.]] ==Beheading== Centries ago, many countries used beheading as an execution for important people, including England. In England, some kings and queens have been beheaded. There, the prisoner would be led up the scaffold and usually say a speech. Then, he/she would be blindfolded and put his/her neck onto a block. Then, the executioner would lift up his axe and swing it down onto the victim's neck. If the executioner was skilled and the axe was sharp, then the axe would usually cut through the bone and organs of the victim in one stroke. But if the executioner was inexperienced, then it may take many strokes before the head would be cut off. == See also == [[Decapitation]] Flesch Reading Ease The '''Flesch Reading Ease''' measures [[textual difficulty]], which indicates how easy a text is to [[read]]. Tools to calculate the Flesch Reading Ease include: * [[Microsoft Word]]'s [[grammar]] check * [[Abiword]] (open source) * [[Koffice|KWord]] (open source) ==How it works== The Flesch Reading Ease Scale measures readability as follows: 100: Very easy to read. [[Average]] [[sentence]] length is 12 [[word]]s or fewer. No words of more than two [[syllable]]s. 65: Plain English. Average sentence length is 15 to 20 words. Average word has two syllables. 30: Pretty difficult to read. Sentences will have mostly 25 words. Two syllables usually. 0: Extremely difficult to read. Average sentence length is 37 words. Average word has more than two syllables. The higher the [[rating]], the easier the text is to understand. By the very nature of technical subject matter, the Flesch score is usually relatively low for technical documentation. If the Flesch test is used regularly, one may develop a sense of what a reasonable score is for the type of documentation one is working on and aim to maximize this score. The approach to calculating the Flesch score is as follows: # Calculate the average sentence length, L. # Calculate the average number of syllables per word, N. # Calculate score (between 0-100%). == Other websites == *Rudolf Flesch, the developer of the test, provides some background information on [http://www.mang.canterbury.ac.nz/writing_guide/writing/flesch.shtml how to write plain English]. Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level The '''Flesch-Kincaid Reading level''' measures [[textual difficulty]] and tells you the grade level of a [[text]]. The Flesch-Kincaid index tells how easy something is to [[read]]. It does this by counting the number of [[syllable]]s in every word and the number of words in every sentence. Then some math is done. The number will represent a grade-school level. For example, a sentence with a score of 8.0 means that someone in 8th grade could understand it. Normal writing is usually between 7 and 8. The formula used to find the level is as follows: 0.39 x Average No. of words in sentences + 11.8 x Average No. of [[Syllable|syllables]] per word - 15.59 February '''February''' is the second [[month]] of the [[year]] with 28 days in most years. In [[leap year|leap years]] February has 29 days. In [[Sweden]] in [[1732]] the month had 30 days. This was to make the calendar match the rest of the world. In [[1930]] and [[1931]], February had 30 days in the [[Soviet Union]] because the government changed all the months to be 30 days long. The name comes either from the Roman Mythology god Februus or else from "februa", the festivals of purification celebrated in Rome every fifteenth of this month. February is one of the last two months to be added to the calendar (the other is January). This is because in the original [[Roman]] calendar, the two months of [[Winter]], when not much happen in agriculture, did not have names. From circa 700 BC, when Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, added it to the calendar, February had 23 days and 24 days on some of every second year, until 46 BC when Julius Caesar assigned it 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise. February's flower is the Violet with its birthstone being the Amethyst. The meaning of the Amethyst is Sincerity. == Events in February == This is a list of annual events or festivals. * [[February 2]]nd is [[Candlemas]] and [[Groundhog Day]]. * [[February 14]]th is [[Valentine's Day]] == Trivia == * In February the [[Sun]] passes through [[zodiac]] [[constellation|constellations]] [[Capricornus]] and [[Aquarius]]. * In most years February begins on the same day of the [[week]] as March and November. * In leap years February begins on the same day of the week as August. * The signs of the [[zodiac]] within the month of February are [[Aquarius]] and [[Pisces]]. == Other websites == * [http://www.februarycalendar.net February Calendar] FAQ both "fak" and "F.A.Q." are commonly used. Flame (disambiguation) '''Flame''' can mean: *'''Flaming''' - (adjective) [[angry]], obnoxious, or insulting text online *To '''flame''' - (verb) To send angry, obnoxious, or insulting messages, usually repeatedly, in chat rooms, on forums, over instant messaging services (like AOL Instant Messenger), or in e-mail. *A '''flame''' (noun) is a part of a [[fire]]. Freedom '''Freedom''', for people, means not being owned or [[control]]led by anyone else. The best way to describe it is as the opposite of "[[slavery]]". == Special cases == Freedom does not always mean that people do as they want. There are many things that may not let people do that. So freedom is a very [[politics|political]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] idea. A difficult problem is that sometimes people make bad choices. They may make choices which stop them doing things they want to do later. If they had not been free to make the bad choice, they ''would'' have be able to do the things they wanted later. So, some people think that it is sometimes OK to control someone else, if it helps that person do things they want in the end. For example, it is okay to say that a child who wants to get a good job must go to school, because when the child grows up, they will be able to get that job. Or, if a person has decided they do not want to drink [[alcohol]] and drive, it is okay to stop them driving if they drink. Because of this, some philosophers (like [[Isaiah Berlin]]) think there are two kinds of freedom. They say that not being owned or controlled by anyone else is called ''negative freedom'' or ''freedom from''. They believe that there is another kind of freedom called ''positive freedom'', or ''freedom to''. Positive freedom is the ability to do all of the things that you can and want to do. Some people also say that we should stop a person driving if they drink because they might get hurt - even if the person ''did'' want to drink and drive. Or we should make a child go to school even if they do not want to get a good job in the end, because they might change their mind when they grow up. These may be good ideas, but they are not ''positive freedom''. It is only ''positive freedom'' if you control the person now to help them do something that '''they''' want to do later, and you know for sure that they want to do it. These ideas are called ''paternalism'', where you control a person now to do something that '''you''' want them to do later, or that you think they should do. ''Paternalism'' makes a person less free, but it can make their life better, which is another hard question. == Freedom today == Today, freedom is felt by many to be something that all [[human being]]s have from birth, and a natural [[right (legal)|right]]. This means that one is free by the fact that they are a human being. As humans, everyone has [[dignity]] that must be respected. == Types of freedom == Some of the main types of [[human]] freedom are: freedom to [[life]], freedom of [[association]], freedom of [[belief]], freedom to express oneself, freedom to choose one's state in life. However, the civil [[constitution]]s of each country have different definitions of the freedoms allowed to the [[citizen]]s. It has been argued that any [[law]] limits freedom, since it sets [[limit]]s on what people may do. == See also == *[[Liberty]] *[[Justice]] Financial capital '''Financial capital''' is a form of [[capital (economics)|capital]]. It is things that have [[value]], but do not do anything by themselves. They are only valuable because people value (want) them. For example, [[money]] is a form of financial capital. You cannot do anything with money but it still has value. Financial capital is used to pay for things, this is because there is always more of it and people always want it. This means that financial capital has a stable value and can be traded in most places and with most people. Some forms of financial capital, such as [[stock]]s, [[gold]] or [[bond]]s are not wanted by everybody. However they can be traded with people for money or another type of financial capital. Because of this, these forms of financial capital do not have a stable price. This means that some people try to make a [[profit]] by buying and selling these types of financial capital in a [[market]]. Some things are treated as financial capital, even though they do have a use. For example, some people buy and sell [[land]] but are not interested in doing anything with it. Some people think this sort of trade is bad because the land should be used and not just treated like money. Other types of capital, such as [[social capital]] and [[human capital]] are rarely treated like financial capital. This may be because they involve people. Treating useful capital like financial capital is called [[comodification]]. In [[politics]], a common question is how often the government should use financial capital. In particular, should the government use financial capital to make a profit? Traditionally, [[liberal]] [[politicians]] do not mind this kind of trading for profit, but [[socialist]] or [[conservative]] politicians are against it. == See also == *[[National debt]] Fecund universes '''Fecund universes''' is a [[multiverse]] [[theory]] of [[Lee Smolin]]. It relies on [[models of our universe]] and [[statistics]] from [[astrophysics]] but is more correctly a theory of [[cosmology]]. In this theory, collapsing stars, or [[black hole]]s, are always [[creating]] new universes with slightly different [[laws of physics]]. Because these laws are only slightly different, each is assumed to be like a [[mutation]] of the original universe, as if each universe was a kind of [[single-celled organism]]. It would [[reproduce]] by "splitting" in some sense. This theory relies on many [[models of our universe]] to model these "mutated" alternative universes, the ones that Smolin supposes are generated or "spun off" by [[black hole]]s. No [[human]] can ever be part of any of these "other" universes. Observations from [[astrophysics]] can only say if the black holes exist or are common, and give some idea of how much the [[laws of physics]] can vary and still let the new universes produce new black holes. Smolin predicts that there would be many black holes in the universe humans can see, since they are likely in a very late born universe, by simple probability. If there are many black holes, that is evidence for his theory, As this shows, [[cosmology]] has a very different [[standard of evidence]] and [[burden of proof]] than is required for [[models of our universe]] only, which humans (using mathematics) can observe and exchange [[knowledge]] on. It is hard to separate science from [[religion]] on such questions. It may be a simple matter of preference whether one wants to see one's universe as part of a system like [[biology]] or like [[mechanics]] - [[clockwork]]. Smolin's theory is important mostly because it challenges the [[mechanistic paradigm]]. Even if it is wrong, it raises the idea that living beings might have to see their universe as also living to be able to understand or care about it at all. Some compare Smolin's theory to [[Gaia philosophy]] which combines [[biology]], [[geology]] and [[ecology]] to explain the [[Earth]], our planet, as a living thing. If both are right, humans are on a living planet in a living universe. This idea is very appealing - which does not mean it is really "right". Some think both are a kind of [[religion]]. Food s that are eaten.]] .]] '''Food''' is material of [[animal]] or [[plant]] origin, eaten by living things to provide [[energy]] and [[nutrition]]. Food contains the [[nutrition]] that people need to be healthy. People need to eat [[protein]], [[carbohydrate]]s, [[vitamin]]s, and [[Dietary mineral|mineral]]s to be healthy. Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called "[[drink]]s". Food for humans is mostly made through [[farming]] or [[gardening]], and includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like meat, eggs and products with milk in them. Not eating meat is called [[vegetarian|vegetarianism]]. Not eating or using any animal products is called [[veganism]]). {| border="1" align="center" |----- | colspan="3" align="center" | Basic foods consumed by humans''' |----- | align="center" | ''''' || align="center" | '''Plant source''' | align="center" | Animal source''' |----- | align="center" | || valign="top" | *[[Fruit]] *[[Vegetable]]s *[[Grain]]s *[[Seed]]s *[[Legume]]s (Beans, peas, lentils, etc.) *[[Herbs]] *[[Spice]]s | valign="top" | *[[meat]] *[[Egg (food)|eggs]] *[[Dairy product]]s |} Food produced by farmers or gardeners can be transformed by industrial processes (the [[food industry]]). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and [[food additive]]s (such as [[preservative]], antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavour enhancers, etc.). At home, food is prepared in the [[kitchen]], by the [[cook]]. The cook sometimes uses a [[cookbook]]. Examples of cooking utensils are [[pressure cooker]], [[pot]], and [[pan]]. Food can also be prepared and served in [[restaurants]] (often workers, or in the evening for entertainment) or [[refectory]] (in particular for kids in school). The utensils used may be a [[plate]], [[knife]], [[fork]], [[chopstick]]s, [[spoon]], [[bowl]], or [[spork]]. Most people do not grow their own food, so they have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People [[buy]] most of their food in [[store]]s, [[shop]]s, or [[market]]s. But some people still grow most or all of their own food. People may buy food and take it home to [[cook]] it, or buy food that is ready to eat from a [[street vendor]], or in a [[restaurant]]. ==Food-related issues== Food shortage is still a big problem in the world today. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad [[weather]] or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are [[hungry]]. If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become [[disease|sick]] and die from [[starvation]]. In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is [[famine]] there. Food can make people [[sick]] if it is contaminated by [[micro-organism]]s, [[heavy metals]], or chemicals. If people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick. If people do not eat enough protein, they get the disease called [[kwashiorkor]]. If they do not eat enough [[vitamin B1]] ([[thiamine]]), they get the disease called [[beriberi]]. If people eat too much food, they can become [[overweight]] or [[obesity|obese]]. This is also bad for people's health. ==Food in religions== Many cultures or [[religion]]s have food taboos. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the ''[[Kosher|Kashrut]]'' of [[Judaism]] and the ''[[Halal]]'' of [[Islam]], which say that [[pig]] meat cannot be eaten. Fine The word '''fine''' is used in [[English language|English]] with two very different [[meaning]]s. 1) People sometimes use the word fine as an [[adjective]] to mean that something is good. 2) We also use the word fine as a [[noun]] with a different meaning. Often, if a [[court]] or a [[judge]] says that someone did a [[crime]], then the person has to pay some [[money]] to their [[government]]. This money is called a fine. Governments make these fines so people won't want to do the crime. Sometimes we often use the word "fine" in the same way for [[business]]es instead of governments. For example there are some businesses that will let us take [[book]]s or [[video]]s to use in our homes for a few days. But if we keep the book or video for too long, we might have to pay a fine to that business. Frying To '''fry''' [[food]] is to [[cook]] it in hot [[butter]] or [[vegetable oil]]. We can fry food in a small amount of butter or oil in a [[pan]] or in a lot of oil in a [[pot]]. Some [[restaurant]]s also have large [[deep fryer]]s to fry a lot of food at once. Fish ]] ]] ]] A '''fish''' (plural: fish or fishes) is a kind of animal that lives in [[water]], and breathes the oxygen in the water instead of [[air]] using [[gills]], which are special flaps that let them breathe in water. There are many different kinds of fish. Fish usually have [[scale]]s and [[fin]]s. They live in [[fresh water]] in [[lake]]s and [[river]]s, and in [[salt water]] in the [[ocean]]. Some fish are less than one [[centimeter]] long. The largest fish is considered to be the [[whale shark]], which can be almost 15 [[metre|meter]]s long and weigh 15 [[ton]]s. ==People and fish== People eat many kinds of fish. The fish that people eat most include [[carp]], [[cod]], [[herring]], [[perch]], [[sardine]]s, [[sturgeon]], [[tilapia]], [[trout]], [[tuna]], and many others. Some people keep fish as [[pet|pets]]. [[Goldfish]] and [[Siamese Fighting Fish]] are popular types of pet fish. They are often kept by groups of people in public ponds for their beauty and calming nature. ==Bony and cartilagenous fish== Most kinds of fish have [[bone]]s. Some kinds of fish, such as [[shark]]s and [[ray]]s, do not have real bones (their [[skeleton]]s are made of [[cartilage]]) they are known as [[cartilagenous fish]]. Some [[scientist]]s say that these are not real fish, but most people call them fish. Some other animals that live in the sea, such as [[sea star|starfish]] and [[jellyfish]], are called fish, but are not really fish. The word ''to fish'' is also used for the activity of catching fish. People catch fish with small [[net]]s from the side of the water or from small [[boat]]s, or with big nets from big boats. People can also catch fish with [[fishing pole]]s and [[fishhook]]s with [[bait]]. This is often called [[fishing]]. there is also different types of lures that can be used. one is a crank bait. others are like plastic worms and rat-l-traps. these are ways of catching fish. Foot :''Foot is also the name of a unit of measurement. See [[foot (unit of length)]]. A '''foot''' (one ''foot'', two or more '''feet''') is a [[body]] part on the end of a [[leg]]. We use it when walking, and it is important for balance: it helps us stand straight. We also use it to [[kick]], in both [[fighting]] and [[sport]]s, [[football]] being an example. People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five ''digits'' (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the ''heel''. The bottom of the foot is called the ''sole''. Half the bones in our body are in the foot. Doctors who work with people's feet are ''podiatrists'' or ''chiropodists''. [[Animal]]s often have feet, and there are a lot of different sorts of foot. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, we often call it a ''paw''. In many societies, people like to cover the foot when they are with others, especially outside. In many cultures (for example [[North America]]n, [[Europe]]an, [[Japan]]ese and others) people wear clothing over the foot to keep it safe. This [[footwear]] has special names, for example ''sandals'', ''[[shoe]]s'', and ''[[boot]]s''. When people always wear footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (''foot odour''). If footwear is too big or small, it can be bad for the feet when the person wears the shoe, and also much later. But people who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes. People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in much of Europe and [[Canada]], people usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home or visiting. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes, and floors are often made of very soft materials, too soft for shoes. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. But wearing no shoes is good for the feet, especially for children's feet. Conditions like [[Athlete's foot]] affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked. France {{Infobox Country | fullcountryname = République française | image_flag = Flag_of_France.svg | image_coa = Armoiries république française.svg | image_location = Europe location FRA.png | nationalmotto = Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood
([[French language|French]]: Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité)'' | nationalsong = ''[[La Marseillaise]]'' | officiallanguages = [[French language|French]] | populationtotal = 63,044,000The French Republic, including all the overseas departments and territories. However it excludes the French territory of Terre Adélie in [[Antarctica]] where [[sovereignty]] is suspended since the signing of the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] in 1959 * [[Metropolitan and Overseas France|Metropolitan France]]: 60,560,000Metropolitan (i.e. European) France only | populationrank = 42 | populationdensity = 111 | countrycapital = [[Paris]] | countrylargestcity = [[Paris]] | areatotal = 674,843 km² | arearank = 40 | areawater = | areawaterpercent = | establishedin = | leadertitlename = [[President of France|President]]: :[[Nicolas Sarkozy]] [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]]: :[[François Fillon]] | currency = [[Euro]] (€)Whole of the French Republic except the overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean, [[CFP Franc]]French overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean only | utcoffset = in [[Daylight saving time|summer]] :[[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1) :[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2) | dialingcode = 33 | internettld = [[.fr]] }} '''France''' ([[French language|French]]: ''France''), officially the '''French Republic''' (French: ''République française'') is a [[country]] in [[Europe]]. Its [[capital (city)|capital city]] is [[Paris]]. France is a member of the [[European Union]]. France is known for its many [[monument]]s, [[structure]]s, and places such as the [[Louvre]], the [[Eiffel Tower]], the [[Arc de Triomphe]], [[Giverny]], [[Versailles]], and [[Notre Dame]]. France is a country divided into ''[[Regions of France|régions]]'' and ''[[Departments of France|départements]]''. France has been one of the world's biggest [[power]]s since the end of the 17th century. In the 18th and 19th centuries, France built a very big [[colony|colonial empire]]. It is across [[West Africa]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. France is the most visited country in the world. 82 million foreign tourists visit it every year. France is a founding member of the [[European Union]]. It has the largest land area any of the members. France is also a founding member of the [[United Nations]], and a member of the [[G8]] and [[NATO]]. It is one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]]. France is a [[Nuclear weapons|nuclear power]] with active warheads and [[Nuclear power|nuclear power plants]]. There are many cities in France. Some of them are [[Nice]], [[Marseille]], [[Bordeaux]], [[Lille]], [[Lyon]], [[Toulouse]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Nantes]] and of course [[Paris]]. ==Geography== France is in [[Western Europe]]. France has borders with [[Belgium]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Monaco]], [[Andorra]], and [[Spain]]. France has two [[mountain]] ranges near its [[border]]s: the [[Alps]] and the [[Pyrenees]]. In France there are a lot of [[river]]s. Two of these rivers are the [[Seine]] and the [[Loire River|Loire]]. In the north and west of France there are low hills and river valleys. In France there are many different [[climate]]s. The [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] has a large effect on the weather in the north and west. This means the temperature is about the same most of the year. In the east winters are cold and clear. Summers are hot and stormy. In the south, summers are hot and dry. Winters are cool and [[rain|wet]]. ==History== The name "France" comes from [[Latin]] ''Francia'', which literally means "land of the [[Franks]]" or "Frankland". The borders of modern France are about the same as those of ancient [[Gaul]]. Ancient Gaul was inhabited by [[Celt]]ic ''Gauls''. Gaul was conquered for [[Roman Empire|Rome]] by [[Julius Caesar]] in the 1st century BC. Eventually, the Gauls adopted [[Romance languages|Roman]] speech ([[Latin]], from which the [[French language]] evolved) and Roman culture. [[History of Christianity|Christianity]] first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. It became firmly established by the fourth and fifth centuries. In the 4th century AD, the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]], principally the [[Franks]] invaded the gauls. This is how the name ''Francie'' appeared. The modern name “France” comes from the name of the [[Capetian dynasty|Capetian]] Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to [[Catholic]] Christianity rather than [[Arianism]]. The French called themselves “the Most Christian Kingdom of France”. The [[Treaty of Verdun]] (843), divided [[Charlemagne]]'s [[Empire]] into three parts. The biggest area was Western Francia. It was the precursor to modern France. The ''Carolingian'' [[dynasty]] [[rule]]d France until 987, when [[Hugh Capet of France|Hugh Capet]] became [[King of France]]. His descendants, the [[Capetian dynasty|Direct Capetians]], the [[House of Valois]] and the [[House of Bourbon]], unified the country with many wars and dynastic inheritance. The monarchy was the most [[power]]ful during the 17th century and the reign of [[Louis XIV of France]]. At that time France had the largest population in Europe (see [[Demographics of France]]). The country had a big influence over European [[politics]], [[economy]], and [[culture]]. [[French language|French]] became the common language of [[diplomacy]] in international affairs. Much of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] happened in France. Major scientific breakthroughs were achieved by French scientists in the 18th century. France also obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia. France had a [[monarchy]] until the [[French Revolution]] in 1789. King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and his wife, [[Marie Antoinette]], were [[executed]] in 1793. Thousands of other French citizens were also killed. [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] took control of the Republic in 1799. He later made himself Emperor of the First Empire (1804–1814). His armies conquered most of [[Europe|continental Europe]]. After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 at the [[Battle of Waterloo]], the French monarchy was re-established. Later [[Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]] created the Second Empire in 1852. Louis-Napoléon was removed after the defeat in the [[Franco-Prussian war]] of 1870. His [[regime]] was replaced by the Third Republic. France built a large [[Colony|colonial]] [[empire]] in the 18th and 19th centuries. The empire included parts of [[West Africa]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. The culture and politics of these regions were [[influence]]d by France. Many [[colony|ex-colonies]] officially speak the [[French]] language. ==Administrative divisions== First, France is divided into (administrative) [[region]]s. 22 of them are in [[Metropolitan France]]: {| | valign="top" | 1. [[Alsace]]
2. [[Aquitaine]]
3. [[Auvergne]]
4. [[Basse-Normandie]]
5. [[Bourgogne]]
6. [[Bretagne]]
7. [[Centre (French region)|Centre]]
8. [[Champagne-Ardenne]]
9. [[Corse]]
10. [[Franche-Comté]]
11. [[Haute-Normandie]]
| 12. [[Île-de-France]]
13. [[Languedoc-Roussillon]]
14. [[Limousin]]
15. [[Lorraine]]
16. [[Midi-Pyrénées]]
17. [[Nord-Pas-de-Calais]]
18. [[Pays de la Loire]]
19. [[Picardie]]
20. [[Poitou-Charentes]]
21. [[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]]
22. [[Rhône-Alpes]]
| |} :Corsica has a different status than the other 21 metropolitan regions. It is called ''[[collectivité territoriale]]''. France also has 4 [[Overseas Regions of France|overseas regions]]: :{| | valign="top" | # [[Guadeloupe]] (in the Caribbean) # [[French Guiana]] (in South America) # [[Martinique]] (in the Caribbean) # [[Réunion]] (in the Indian Ocean). These four overseas regions have the same status as the metropolitan ones. They are like the overseas American states of [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]]. |} Then France is divided into [[Departments of France|100 departments]]. The departments are divided into 342 [[Arrondissements of France|arrondissements]]. The ''arrondissements'' are re-divided into 4,032 [[Cantons of France|cantons]]. The smallest subdivision is the [[Communes of France|commune]]. On January 1, 2008, [[INSEE]] counted 36,781 communes in France. 36,569 of them are in [[Metropolitan and Overseas France|metropolitan France]] and 212 of them are in [[Metropolitan and Overseas France|overseas France]]. This is more than in any other [[European Union|European country]]. ==Government== The government of France is a [[semi-presidential system]] determined by the French [[Constitution]] of the French fifth [[French Republic|Republic]]. The nation declares itself to be "an indivisible, [[secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[social]] [[Republic]]" in it. The constitution provides for a [[separation of powers]]. It proclaims France's "attachment to the [[Human rights|Rights of Man]] defined by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|Declaration of 1789]]." == Military == ''Charles de Gaulle'']] The French [[armed forces]] are divided into four branches: * The ''Armée de Terre'' (Army) * The ''Marine Nationale'' (Navy) * The ''Armée de l'Air'' (Air Force) * The ''Gendarmerie Nationale'' (A military force which acts as a National Rural Police) There are about 359,000 military personnel in France . France spends 2.6% of its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] on defence. This is the highest in the [[European Union]]. France and the [[UK]] spend 40% of the EU defence [[budget]]. About 10% of France's defence budget is for [[nuclear weapons]] force. == Foreign relations == France is a member of the [[United Nations]]. It is permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]] and has [[veto]] rights. It is also a member of the [[World Trade Organisation]] (WTO). It hosts the headquarters of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[UNESCO]] and [[Interpol]]. In [[1953]], France was asked by the [[United Nations]] to choose a [[coat of arms]] to represent them internationally. The French emblem is now on their [[passport]]s. France was a founding member of the [[European Union]]. In the 1960s, France wanted to exclude the [[Great Britain|British]] from the organisation. It wanted to build its own [[power]] in continental [[Europe]]. Since the 1990s, France has got closer to [[Germany]]. This was to try to become the most influential country in the EU. It consequently created rivalry the [[UK]] and limited the influence of newly inducted East European nations. France is a member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]. However, under President de Gaulle, it excluded itself from the joint military command. In the early 1990s, France was criticised for its underground [[nuclear]] tests in [[French Polynesia]]. France vigorously opposed the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. France retains strong political and economic influence in its former [[Africa]]n colonies. For instance it has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in the [[Ivory Coast]] and [[Chad]]. ==Economy== ]] France is a member of the [[G8]] group of leading industrialised countries. France is ranked as the eighth largest economy in the world by [[Gross domestic product|Gross domestic product (GDP)]] adjusted for [[purchasing power parity]] which takes into account how much it costs to live in different countries and [[inflation]] rates. France and 11 other [[European Union]] members joined to launch the [[euro]] on 1 January 1999. France's economy has nearly 2.9 million companies registered. The government has a considerable influence over [[railway]], [[electricity]], [[aircraft]], and [[telecommunications]] firms. France has an important aerospace (design of [[aircraft]]s and [[spacecraft]]s) industry led by [[Airbus]]. It can also launch [[space shuttle]]s from [[French Guiana]]. France invested a lot in [[nuclear power]]. This made France the smallest producer of [[Greenhouse gas|carbon dioxide]] among the seven most industrialized countries in the world. As a result, most of the electricity produced in the country is generated by 59 nuclear power plants (78% in 2006, up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990). France is the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe. France exports: [[Wheat]], [[poultry]], [[dairy]] products, [[beef]] and [[pork]]. It is also famous for its [[wine]] industry. France received $10 billion euros in 2006 from the European Community as to its farmers. ==Culture== === Language === [[French language|French]] is the official [[language]] of France. It belongs to the [[Romance language]] group, which includes [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. Many regional [[dialect]]s are used in France. [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], a [[Germany|German]] dialect is spoken in [[Alsace]] and in parts of [[Lorraine]] in eastern France. French used to be the language of [[diplomacy]] and [[culture]] in [[Europe]] around 17th - 19th century. Some people in France also speak [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Corsican language|Corsican]], [[German language|German]], [[Flemish language|Flemish]], and [[Occitan language|Occitan]]. ===Religion=== [[Cathedral]] ]] France is a [[Secularism|secular]] country and freedom of [[religion]] is guaranteed by the [[constitution]]. The [[population]] is about 51% [[Roman Catholic]] and 31% is [[Agnosticism|agnostics]] or [[Atheism|atheists]]. 4% is identified as [[Islam|Muslim]], 3% identified as [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and 1% identified as [[Judaism|Jewish]]. 10% is identified as being from other religions or being without opinion. [http://www.cotidianul.ro/franta_nu_mai_e_o_tara_catolica-20395.html Franţa nu mai e o ţară catolică], ''[[Cotidianul]]'' 2007-01-11 According to a Poll in 2005: * '''34%''' of French citizens responded that ''"they believe there is a [[God]]"''. * '''27%''' answered that ''"they believe there is some sort of [[spirit]] or life force"''. * '''33%''' answered that ''"they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force"''. === Literature === ]] French literature began in the [[Middle Ages]]. French was divided into several dialects at the time. Each writer used his own [[spelling]] and [[grammar]]. During the 17th century [[Pierre Corneille]], [[Jean Racine]] and [[Molière]]'s [[Theatre|plays]] and [[Blaise Pascal]] and [[René Descartes]]'s [[book]]s influenced the [[aristocracy]]. They also influenced future authors. In the 18th and 19th centuries, French literature and poetry reach its highest point. The 18th century saw the writings of such writers, [[Essay|essayists]] and [[Moral|moralists]] as [[Voltaire]] and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. As for French children's literature in those times, [[Charles Perrault]] was probably the most [[famous]] writer. He wrote stories such as: “[[Little Red Riding Hood]]”, “[[Cinderella]]”, “[[Sleeping Beauty]]” and “[[Puss in Boots]]”. Many famous French novels were written in the the 19th century by author such as [[Victor Hugo]], [[Alexandre Dumas, père|Alexandre Dumas]] and [[Jules Verne]]. They wrote popular novels like [[The Three Musketeers]], [[The Count of Monte-Cristo]], [[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]], or [[The Hunchback of Notre-Dame]]. Other 19th century fiction writers include [[Emile Zola]], [[Guy de Maupassant]], [[Théophile Gautier]] and [[Stendhal]]. === Sports === ]] The [[Tour de France]] [[cycling]] [[race]] in July is one of the best-known [[sport]]ing events. It is a 3 week (3,500 km) race that covers most of France and ends in the center of Paris. [[Football (soccer)|Football]] is another popular sport in France. The French team won the [[FIFA World Cup]] in 1998 and the [[UEFA European Football Championship]] in 1984 and 2000. France is also famous for its ''24 Hours of Le Mans'' [[car]] [[race]]. France also hosted the [[Rugby World Cup]] in 2007 and finished fourth. France is closely associated with the [[Olympic Games|Modern Olympic Games]]. At the end of the 19th century the [[Baron]] [[Pierre de Coubertin]] suggested to have Olympic Games again. France hosted the [[Summer Olympics]] twice. In 1900 and in 1924 in [[Paris]]. France also hosted the [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Games]] three times. In 1924 in [[Chamonix]], in 1968 in [[Grenoble]] and in 1992 in [[Albertville]]). ===Tourism=== ]] ]] France is the first [[tourist]] destination in the world. In 2007, 81.9 million foreign tourists visited France. [[Spain]] comes second (58.5 million in 2006) and the [[United States]] come third (51.1 million in 2006). Some of the most famous attractions in France are the [[Eiffel Tower]] and the [[Arc de Triomphe]]. They are in Paris, the capital of France. Another one is [[Mont Saint Michel]]. A European [[Disneyland]] is located in a [[suburb]] east of Paris. The resort opened in 1992 and is a popular tourist destination in [[Europe]]. == References == == Other websites == *[http://www.francesouth.com/france_map.htm France Maps & Photographs] *[http://www.traveldir.org/france/ France Travel Guide] *[http://about-france.com About-France.com Clear but detailed information about France] *[http://www.pictures-europe.com/holidays-france.htm France Pictures] *[http://www.pictures-europe.com/map/map-france.htm France Map] * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f09Mzw_Cy_8 Song La France] *[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fr.html CIA World Factbook-France] *[http://www.lescommunes.com/index.en.html Cities and Towns in France with lescommunes.com] Finland '''Finland''' (''Suomi'' in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]) is a [[country]] in Northern [[Europe]] and is a member state of the [[European Union]]. Finland is one of the [[Nordic countries]]. It is also part of Scandinavia.Finland is located between 60th and 70th latitudes of North. Its neighbours are [[Sweden]] in west, [[Norway]] in north, [[Russia]] in east and [[Estonia]] at south, beyond the sea called Gulf of Finland. Most of the western and southern Finland is seashore of the [[Baltic sea]]. The [[Capital (city)|capital]] of Finland is [[Helsinki]]. The [[currency]] of Finland is the [[Euro]] (EUR). It was "markka", FIM, before [[2002]]. The [[president]] of Finland is [[Tarja Halonen]]. 5.3 million humans live in Finland. [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] are the official [[language]]s of Finland. Most people in Finland speak Finnish, but there is about six [[percent]] of Finland's population which speak Swedish as their [[mother tongue]], living mostly in the west of Finland and on [[Åland]](Finnish Ahvenanmaa). Finland became [[Independence|independent]] in 1917. The most important cities in Finland are [[Helsinki]], [[Espoo]], [[Tampere]], [[Vantaa]], [[Turku]], [[Oulu]], [[Lahti]], [[Kuopio]], [[Jyväskylä]] and [[Pori]]. Finland is a highly industrialized [[First World]] country. The most important Finnish industrial products are [[paper]], [[steel]] products such as machines, and electronics. Nokia (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland named after a small town called Nokia. ==People and culture== The people of Finland are called Finns. Most Finns speak [[Finnish language]] as their mother tongue. Some 6% of Finns have [[Swedish language]] as their mother tongue. Most Finns have also have studied some other language, like [[English language]] in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like [[sauna]]s and [[nature]]. Many Finnish families have a [[summer cottage]], a small house where they go to relax on their summer holiday. The most important parties that Finnish people celebrate are [[Midsummer]] and [[Christmas]]. [[Santa Claus]] is an old Finnish tradition, although later the [[Coca-Cola]] company introduced him to the world. In North America some children think he lives near the [[north pole]]. In Finland and neighbouring countries, he lives in a small mountain called [[Korvatunturi]] (''"Ear mountain"''). The most popular sports in Finland are [[ice hockey]], [[skiing]] and [[track and field]]. Recently Finns have also won many events in [[swimming]] and [[motor sports]]. There is a very small group (minority) of [[Sami]] (also called Lapp) people in the most northern part of Finland called [[Lapland]]. Many sami people have [[reindeer]] and colourful clothes. in the past the Sami were [[nomad]]s, but now they live in regular houses. Very few people in Finland are from other countries, only about one percent. ==Nature and weather== , [[North Karelia]]]] Most of Finland is covered by pine [[ forest]]. The [[swan]] is the national bird of Finland. The swan was a holy animal long ago. Wood is even today the most important natural resource of Finland. It is estimated that up to one-thirds of all wood resources of European Union are in Finland. The national animal of Finland is the brown bear. And the largest animal is the elk (moose). There are also hundreds of rivers and thousands of lakes with fresh water. [[Fishing]] is a popular [[sport]]. It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland. Many islands in the [[Baltic Sea]] belong to Finland, too. Thousands of islands are part of the [[Åland]] [[archipelago]]. Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the [[Aurora|Northern light]]s of [[Lapland]]. The highest mountain of Finland is Halti, 1328 m. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometers. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki, 570 km from Lake Kilpisjärvi. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 km. C. The winter usually lasts to mid-March when the snow melts away in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually melts away in early May), and spring to late May. Springs are vigorous and the weather can vary from frost to sunshine in a matter of days. Northern lights are common in Lapland. ==History of Finland== . Here are pictures of [[elk]]s, a ship and humans.]] People first came to Finland 10 000 years ago. That was just after an [[ice age]], just after very thick ice that was on ground had melted away. Some think the first people in Finland already spoke a language that is related to Finnish that is spoken today. We know for sure that early form of Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the [[Iron age]]. (The Iron Age was in Finland 2500-800 years ago). First people killed wild animals and ate them, but did not farm their food. Those kind of people are called "[[hunter-gatherer]]s". Some people started to [[agriculture|farm]] to make some food 5200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age. from Finland.]] The religion of Finnish people was [[paganism]]. The biggest god of Finns was [[Ukko]]. He was a god of [[sky]] and [[thunder]]. About a thousand years ago some Finns changed their religion to [[Christianity]], and slowly Christianity became more and more popular. Some pagan beliefs still remained amongst the Christian beliefs. During the [[Reformation]] of Christianity most Finnish people became [[protestant]]s. From the [[Middle ages]] Finland was a part of [[Sweden]]. Then in year 1809 [[AD]] [[Russia]] took Finland from Sweden. Then Finland was a part of Russia, but Finland was [[autonomy|autonomic]], which means Finns could make decisions about many things in Finland. Finns could make their own laws and Finland had their own money (called [[markka]]), their own [[stamp]]s and own [[custom]]s. However Finland did not have its own [[army]]. Then in 1917, Finland became independent, it was no longer a part of Russia. There was a [[communism|communist]] revolution in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the [[Soviet Union]]. There were communists in Finland too, and they tried to make revolution in Finland. This attempt of revolution caused [[Finnish civil war]]. Communists lost the civil war, and Finland remained its old capitalist system. they wanted to stay independent. Soviet Union sent many troops to Finland to try to make Finland join it. This was the Winter war. There were many fights, and Finnish soldiers won many times. Finally, the leaders of both countries agreed to make peace. Finland was not joined with the Soviet Union, but had to give away some land to make the peace. Parts of [[Karelia]] were with those areas lost to Soviet Union. [[Adolf Hitler]] was a chief in Germany, and he wanted to invade Soviet Union. Finland wanted its lost areas back, so Finland joined the German invasion, that started at 1941. This part of Second world war is called [[Continuation war]] in Finland. However, Finland was not [[fascism|fascist]] or [[antisemitism|antisemitist]] country. Finns were interested in freedom and not dictatorship. Finnish Jews fought with other Finnish people against Soviet Union. Karelia was returned to Finland. While Germany was losing the war Finland wanted to stop fighting. Finland made peace with Soviet Union, but in that peace Finland lost parts of Karelia again. Also peace with Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought Germans, and Germans retreated to Norway. This is called [[War of Lapland]]. Finland remained independent. After the war, there were many factories built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories made things like [[paper]], [[ship]]s and [[steel]]. Now more and more people work on more advanced things, like [[high technology]]. Also, more people go to a [[university]] to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had [[Internet]] connections and mobile phones. A known company that makes [[mobile phone]]s, [[Nokia]], is from Finland. Finland joined [[European Union]] in 1995. Finnish money markka was changed to European Unions money [[Euro]] in 2002. == Known Finnish people == Samuli Torssonen (a film maker) == Other websites == * [http://virtual.finland.fi/History History] * [http://www.finlandlive.info Finland Travel Community - Discussion Forum (English)] Fruit '''Fruit''' is a type of [[food]] that is not always something one is [[edible|able to eat]]. It is part of a [[tree]] or [[shrub|bush]] or sometimes grown out of the ground like [[watermelon|watermelons]], that contains [[seed]]s. For plants, fruits are used so that the plant can make new plants. When the fruit breaks apart, the seeds can get into mud and start growing. () Most fruits we eat contain a lot of [[water]]. They contain natural [[sugar]]. They have a large amount of [[dietary fiber]] at the [[peel]], [[seeds]], and fibrous parts. All fruits contain [[iron]], and they are very low in [[protein]] and [[fat]] content. Sometimes "to bear fruit" also means "to produce results". ==Types of Fruit== *[[Citrus|Citrus fruits]] *[[Berry fruits]] *[[Fleshy fruits]] *[[Stone fruits]] == See also== * [[List of fruit]] Farm A '''farm''' is a piece of [[land]] used to [[grow]] [[plant]]s and/or [[raise]] [[animal]]s for [[food]]. People who grow these plants or raise these animals are called [[farmer]]s. This type of work is called farming. Land that is used to grow plants for food, or could be used to grow plants for food is called [[arable]] land. A life raising animals for food is called a [[pastoral]] life. == See also == * [[Ranch]] Geography == Description == '''Geography''' is the study of the [[Earth]] and its features, its inhabitants, and its phenomena. Its "features" are things like [[continent]]s, [[sea]]s, [[river]]s and [[mountain]]s. Its "inhabitants" are all the people and [[animal]]s that live on it. Its "phenomena" are the things that happen like [[tide]]s, [[wind]]s, and [[earthquake]]s. A person who is expert in geography is a "geographer". A geographer tries to understand the world and the things that are in it, how they started and how they have changed. web.clas.ufl.edu/users/morgans/lecture_2.prn.pdf. Geography is not the same as [[ecology]]. A geographer tries to describe how things are, while an ecologist thinks about changes that might happen in the future. Ecologists need the work of geographers so that they can work out the future. The word ''geography'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''gê'' ("Earth") and ''graphein'' ("to write"). It means "to write about the Earth". The word was first used by a scientist called [[Eratosthenes]] (276-194 B.C.). Geography is divided into two main parts called Physical Geography and Human Geography. Physical Geography studies the "Natural Environment" and Human Geography studies the "Human Environment". The human environmental studies would include things such as the [[population]] in a country, how a country's [[economy]] is doing, and more. Geographers need to know a lot about [[map]]s because maps are very important for understanding geography. Geographers use maps a lot, and often make them. Making maps is called [[cartography]], and similarly, people who make maps are cartographers. (It comes from the word for a "chart") ===Natural environment=== Geographers studying the natural environment make look at: *[[Climate]] *[[Landform]], or relief *[[Continent]]s *[[Ocean]]s *[[Soil]] *[[Mineral|Rocks]] *[[River]]s *[[Mountain]]s *[[Endogenetic processes]] *[[Exogenetic processes]] ===Human environment=== Geographers studying the Human environment may look at: *[[Population]] *[[Country|Countries of the world]] *[[Land use]] *[[Agriculture]] *[[City]] *[[Industry]] *[[Energy]] *[[Pollution]] *[[Air Pollution]] ==References== == Other websites == * [http://www.geoknow.net www.geoknow.net - Geography resources at your fingertips!] * [http://www.populationdata.net PopulationData.net] * [http://www.populationmondiale.com PopulationMondiale.com] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/high.htm Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.] * [http://ericdigests.org/1992-5/geography.htm Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.] * [http://ericdigests.org/1996-1/geography.htm The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.] Good The word '''good''' can be an [[adjective]] that means something that is [[want]]ed. Something that is good is not . See in the dictionary. '''Good''' can also mean: *Good and [[Evil]], a concept in [[religion]] and [[philosophy]]. *[[Good (economics)]], something that is useful. *[[Good (philosophy)]], something that is valuable or important Goodness '''Goodness''' can mean that something is [[good]], or it can mean the amount that something is good. What goodness is has been talked about by [[Philosophy|philosophers]] who try to explain what goodness is. In [[food]], '''goodness''' is the part that is beneficial. Grammar '''Grammar''' . For example, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] grammar is different from [[English language|English]] grammar. It has different rules. In English, a person may say "I like fast cars", but in Spanish, it is ''"me gustan los coches rápidos."'' The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean "to me they please the cars fast" Even though this is not good English grammar, it is correct in Spanish. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about [[word order]]. Grammar is slowly changing. Sentences English speakers find normal today might have seemed strange to people 100 years ago. Some people use grammar that is different from others' when speaking. They might say, "I didn't do nothing" rather than "I didn't do anything." They usually do this because that is what is normal in their [[family]] or the area where they live. Grammar studies [[noun]], [[pronoun]], [[verb]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], [[preposition]], [[conjunction]]. Grammar studies [[sentence]] structure: [[syntax]]. Great Lakes The '''Great Lakes''' are five very big [[lake]]s in eastern [[North America]]. They are, in fact, the biggest [[fresh water]] lakes in the world (freshwater is water that is not [[salt]]y like the [[ocean]]). The lakes are: *[[Lake Superior]] *[[Lake Michigan]] *[[Lake Huron]] *[[Lake Erie]] *[[Lake Ontario]] Four of the Great Lakes are on the border between [[Canada]] and the [[United States|United States of America]]. The other, Lake Michigan, is entirely inside the United States. and then through the [[Saint Lawrence River]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. GNU Free Documentation License The '''GNU Free Documentation License''' (GFDL) is a [[copyleft]] [[license]] for [[open content]]. It was made up by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) for the [[GNU]] project. It was initially created for use with software documentation, but can be applied to other types of works as well. As a [[copyright]] license, the GFDL is a type of [[contract]] between the creator of a copyrightable work (such as a [[book]], an [[encyclopedia]] article, a [[painting]], or a piece of [[music]]) and anyone else who might want to use it. The GFDL is considered "copyleft" because the license is meant to make it easier to use and re-use the copyrighted work, not to restrict its use. If a copyrightable work is released under the GFDL, the creator of the work is saying that anyone else may reproduce, distribute, or modify the work, as long as they follow a set of requirements specified in the GFDL. Among the requirements of the GFDL are that any new work created from the original work is also licensed under the GFDL — that is, once something is licensed as GFDL, it will always stay licensed as GFDL, and anything which uses it also is licensed as GFDL. (Because the license "reproduces" and stays with the work, this is sometimes called a "[[virus|viral]]" license.) The GFDL also says that in order to distribute or modify a work licensed with the GFDL, the re-user must give credit to any previous authors of the work, and include a list of changes they made to the work. Finally, any work licensed with the GFDL must contain, somewhere, the entire text of the license. This provision has been criticized, because it is not always easy to include an entire, long license with a copyrighted work. In a book, for example, it is easy to include one extra page with the license, but if the work is something like a song, or a photograph, it is not easy. The GFDL has other requirements that are more complicated. For example, if part of the work is labeled as an "invariant section," it cannot ever be removed or changed by someone using the work ("invariant" means "does not change"). Works licensed under the GFDL may be included in with non-GFDL-licensed works only if it is clear which parts of the work are licensed as the GFDL. For example, in a book of poetry it would be easy to label some poems as licensed under the GFDL and some not licensed under it. But it would not be easy to label if part of a song was licensed as GFDL and the rest was not, so this would not be allowed. Any use of GFDL material which violates the terms of the GFDL is potentially [[copyright infringement]]. A number of online projects use the GFDL. The largest online project to license its content under the GFDL is [[Wikipedia]]. The GFDL has been criticized by many people who wish that it made it even easier for content to be re-used. Among the criticisms are that it is very hard to combine GFDL material with other copyleft licenses, that it is not always clear and easy to understand, and that some of its requirements, such as the "invariant sections", are not free at all. ==See also== * ==Other websites== *[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html Official license text] Glass '''Glass''' is a [[material]] that can be made in many [[shape]]s. It is usually [[transparency|transparent]], but it can also be made in [[colour]]s. Glass is often used to make [[window]]s and [[bottle]]s. Many [[church]]es have windows made of colored glass. The word "glass" can also refer to a [[drink]] [[container]]. It does not have to be made of glass, but can be made of any material, for example [[plastic]]. Glass is used to make [[lens]]es. The word "glasses" is often used to mean [[eyeglasses]]. The [[myth]] that glass is actually a liquid emanates from the fact that old windows in houses/church's(2-300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape, thicker in the bottom than on the top. However this phenomenon is due to the process of glass manufacture in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one end than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick end at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick end at the top of the window. Image:Roman diatretglas.jpg|[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] Glass Beaker from the 4th Century A.D. Image:Glas halbvoll.JPG|A glass with [[water]]. Image:Glass-Ball.jpg|A glass ball with coloured shapes in it. Image:Chartres2006 046.jpg|[[Stained glass]] windows in a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[church]]. == Other websites == *[http://www.cmog.org/ Corning Museum of Glass] *[http://www.worldartglass.com/index.asp A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world] *[http://venixe.com/en/glass-working-descriptions/description-of-the-art-of-murano-glass-furnace-and-mol.html Working Description Furnace & Moleria - Murano Glass] *[http://www.glassonweb.com Informative website about the glass industry] *[http://1st.glassman.com/articles/glasscolouring.html Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass] *[http://www.glassfacts.info Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass)] God :''In some [[religion]]s, there are many '''gods''', which are believed to be powerful [[spirit]]s. See [[gods]].'' '''God''' as a [[proper noun]] is the word most commonly used to refer to the ultimate power across all [[Religion | religions]]. As an [[improper noun]], the word "god" means a deity who has supernatural powers. Belief in God is commonly called by the term [[theism]]. [[Atheism]] is the word that refers to non-belief in God or any [[gods]]. ==God in the Abrahamic religions== The [[Abrahamic religions]], including [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], are popular monotheistic religions. Therefore, they believe in only one god. The name of God is traditionally not to be said in [[Judaism]], but some people today call him [[YHWH]] (Yahweh) or Jehovah. [[Muslim]]s commonly use the word [[Allah]], which is simply the [[Arabic]] word for "The God." Believers in the Abrahamic religions believe that the Abrahamic God has created [[human beings]] in his image, but this idea is rarely taken literally. The Abrahamic God's portrayal as an old man with a beard has been used in art since the [[Renaissance]], but is not what most monotheists actually believe him to look like. ==Concepts of God in Christianity== the [[New Testament]] says something about [[Jesus]]. The New Testament says that Jesus was God's son. Many Christians also believe that Jesus was God's [[incarnation]] on earth. Christians consider the [[Holy Spirit]] to be God as well. In early times, Christians tried to solve this problem, as in the [[Old Testament]], or[[Torah]], there is purported to be only one god. However, in the [[New Testament]], there were three who were said to be God. The most popular explanation they could find is called the [[Holy Trinity]]: The three mentioned are all part of the same God. Some Christians do not believe in the Trinity. Some believe that Jesus was just a man that talked about God and taught people about God. Members of the [[Unitarian Church]] have these beliefs. Christians believe that God came to Earth in the form of a man ([[Jesus]]) to save humanity. In this sense, [[incarnation | God became man]], and when Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him "Father," and taught others to do the same. ==God in Hinduism== In [[Hinduism]], there is really only one God, who is referred to as [[Brahman]]. However, [[Brahman]] is said to have taken on many different [[incarnation | incarnations]], such as [[Rama]], [[Krishna]], [[Buddha]], [[Shiva]], [[Kali]], [[Parvati]], and [[Durga]]. To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations in [[Hinduism]] is considered to be the worship of many gods. However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways. Some Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone. This idea is called [[Advaita Vedanta]], which is the Hindu term for [[Monism]]. ==God in Other Eastern Religions== Religions like [[Buddhism]] and [[Confucianism]] involve the worship of many gods, or sometimes no gods at all. ==God in Western [[philosophy]]== Philosophers often try to understand gods through logic. When philosophers talk about "God," they talk about a being like the one described above, but not about the god of any particular religion. God in philosophy is discussed without any religious texts. One of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[Aristotle]], who describes god as the Supreme Cause. Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else. There are also some philosophical problems with God. One of them is called [[God paradox]]. It is a question about whether (an omnipotent) God can make a mountain that is so heavy he cannot lift it. Ghost A '''ghost''' is considered to be the [[spirit]] of a [[Human death|dead]] person. [[Scientist]]s say that there are no [[reality|real]] ghosts, but many people believe that there are. There are many stories about ghosts in [[book]]s and [[movie]]s. Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by enemies or who died in a scary way. The ghost may stay on Earth because he or she is angry due to some problem in life and wants to scare people or to harm his or her enemies. Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular locality, for example an abandoned house, and when occupants come they tease them to drive away or cause serious damage to the occupants. Sometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had during life, that was not solved before he or she died. The ghost stays on the Earth trying to fix the problem. If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave the Earth. Many ghosts stay on Earth also because they have died younger or have had sudden or abrupt deaths. Many people claim to have seen or heard ghosts, and are called Mediums. Many people believe they have seen ghosts. Others believe they have felt ghosts near them. Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of cold and a light or a misty cloud, but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people. Sometimes ghosts are said to come in human form, that is, in the body of a person. Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly. Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who are in problems. The ghost might also appear as they did at the time of their death, including any [[blood]] or [[injury|injuries]]. Ghosts can also appear and disappear as they wish. Many ghosts haunt the place they have died or a living loved one. (Or their murder, in some cases). Some may seek revenge or stay simply because they are confused. Ghosts can form right after they die, or even centuries later. Many people make up stories or urban legends. many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special technology such as heat sensors. They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts, often investigating cases where a person has seen one or visiting a place where there was a sighting. == Other websites == * [http://mtcn.free.fr/mtcn-traditional-music-midi-popular-song.php#fant_pel Ghost and the musical traditions within the County of Nice, France] * [http://www.ghostsandstories.com Ghostsandstories.com] Ghost stories and haunted places. * [http://www.yourghoststories.com/ Your Ghost Stories] People sharing their ghost experiences Green '''Green''' is a [[color]]. It is one of the colors of the [[rainbow]]. Green is between the [[yellow]] and [[blue]] colors in a rainbow. Green [[paint]] can be made by mixing yellow paint and blue paint together. Green light, like all light, is formed from [[wave]]s. In its wave, the distance between the smallest repeating parts (the [[wavelength]]) is about 550 [[nanometer]]s (one-billionth of a [[meter]]). Most [[leaf|leaves]] of growing [[plant]]s, such as [[tree]]s and bushes, are green. This is because there is a [[chemical]] in leaves, called [[chlorophyll]], which is green. ==Meaning of Green== Green is seen as the color of [[nature]]. It is a [[symbol]] of [[grow]]th, [[harmony]], [[fresh]]ness, and [[fertility]]. Dark green is also associated with [[money]] in the [[United States]] (American [[dollar]]s are called ''greenbacks). Green is also seen as be able to stay the same and endurance. Sometimes green can stand for "no experience". For example, a 'greenhorn' is a beginner. In [[heraldry]], green stands for growth and hope. Green also stands for [[safety]]. It is the color for "GO" on traffic lights. Because green is seen as the color of nature, it is often used with [[environment]]-friendly products. A person who is said to have a ''green thumb'' is good at growing plants. ''Dark green'' is associated with ambition, greed, and jealousy. A very pale ''Yellow-green'' can mean sickness, being scared, discord, and jealousy. However, a bright ''[[chartreuse green]]'' can mean [[health]] and [[healing]]. ''[[Cyan|Aqua]]'' is associated with making someone feel better and protection, as well as being associated with good health from getting [[exercise]] by going [[swimming]]. ''Olive green'' is the traditional color of [[peace]]. ==Major tints and shades of green color comparison chart==
    "> Pale Green (web color) (Hex: #98FB98) (RGB: 152, 251, 152)
  • "> Light Green (web color) (Hex: #90EE90) (RGB: 144, 238, 144)
    • "> GREEN "> Emerald Green (Hex: #50C878) (RGB: 80, 200, 120) "> Kelly Green (Hex: #4CBB17) (RGB: 76, 187, 23) "> Pigment Green (Hex: #00A550) (RGB: 0, 165, 80) "> Jade Green (Hex: #00A86B) (RGB: 0, 168, 107) color: #ffffff "> Shamrock Green (Hex: #009E60) (RGB: 0, 158, 96)
  • color: #ffffff "> Islamic Green (Hex: #009900) (RGB: 0, 153, 0)
  • color: #ffffff "> India Green (Hex: #138808) (RGB: 19, 136, 8)
  • color: #ffffff "> Forest Green color: #ffffff "> Office Green (HTML/CSS “Green”) (Hex: #008000) (RGB: 0, 128, 0)
  • color: #ffffff "> Dark Green
God's eye view '''God's eye view''' is a name for a [[point of view]] where the speaker or writer assumes they have [[knowledge]] only [[God]] would have. It appears several ways: *In [[religion]], when an [[institution]] claims to speak for a [[divine being]]. *In [[writing]], when an [[author]] leaves the [[point of view]] of the [[main actor]] to start writing about things they could not know if the story were in real life. *In [[science]], when a [[scientist]] ignores the way a [[subject-object problem]] affects [[statistics]] or an [[observer effect]] affects [[experiment]]. *In [[medicine]] when the [[doctor]] makes a claim that [[The Gaze]] he uses on a patient, actually sees the problem, rather than making a guess at a problem. *In [[ethics]] when a statement is made about who or what is right, without an honest attempt to make the of deciding this consider all points of view. A special case of the last is in a [[wiki]] with a [[GodKing]]. Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views. Many people think [[Rene Descartes]] took a God's eye view when he said [[cogito ergo sum]]. [[George Berkeley]] argued that [[optics]] from [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Johannes Kepler]] also had this problem. Google '''Google''' is one of the biggest and most famous websites for finding things ([[Search Engine]]) on the [[World Wide Web]] (WWW). They also do things apart from searching. Other search engines (for example, [[America Online|AOL]]) use its [[software]] and information ([[database]]) too. That makes it the most-used search engine on the web. Every day, 200 million people use it. That is 200 000 000 people. Google's main office ("Googleplex") is in [[Mountain View, California]], [[United States|USA]]. With Google, people can also search for pictures, Usenet newsgroups, news, and things to buy online. By June [[2004]], Google indexed (or put in its database) 4.28 billion webpages, 880 million (880 000 000) pictures and 845 million (845 000 000) Usenet messages — six billion things. because Google is so popular (over 50% of web users use it) it has been used to mean "to search the web". Google dislikes this use since Google is a [[trademark]] and Google can lose that trademark if people use it too widely. ==History== Google began as a project in early 1996 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at [[Leland Stanford University]], USA. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on [[September 7]], [[1998]] at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, [[California]]. In February [[1999]], the company went to 165 University Ave., Palo Alto, California. Then, later that year, it went to another place, now called the "Googleplex". In September 2001, Google's rating system ("PageRank", for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. [[Patent]]. The patent was to Leland Stanford University, with Lawrence Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea). Google makes a significant, though getting less (declining), percentage of it's money through its friends like America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, help making accounts better, and give engineering help. ==The name "Google"== The name "Google" is a misspelling on the word ''[[googol]]''. [[Milton Sirotta]], nephew of U.S. mathematician [[Edward Kasner]], made this word in 1938, for the number 1 and one hundred 0's. It is said that the word "googol" was chosen as a name for this number because it sounded like baby talk. Google uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim first thought of the name.( 1 googol is 10 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000) The name for Google's main office, the "Googleplex," (Very big Number) is a play on a different, even bigger number, "[[googolplex]]", which is 1 with 1 googol of 0's. == Other Google services == * '''[http://www.froogle.com Froogle]''' ''(Now renamed as Google Product Search)'' allows the user to find out about products for sale on the [[Internet]]. Its name is a combination of "Google" and "[[frugal]]", which means smart with [[money]]. * '''[http://calendar.google.com Google Calendar]''' is an online [[calendar]] to organise upcoming events. * '''[http://checkout.google.com Google Checkout]''' is an online payment method, where users can send money using their [[credit card]]s or [[bank account]]s to other users. * '''[http://earth.google.com Google Earth]''' is the [[3D]] version of Google Maps with a [[digital]] [[globe]]. * '''[http://groups.google.com Google Groups]''' is a discussion portal where users discuss topics. * '''[http://images.google.com Google Images]''' is an [[image]] search [[utility]]. * '''[http://maps.google.com Google Local]''' is a search engine to find [[local]] [[business]]es and [[service]]s. * '''[http://www.google.com/language_tools Google Language Tools]''' is an online [[translation]] service, which can translate websites and text into other languages. * '''[http://www.gmail.com Gmail]''' is an [[e-mail]] service that Google started in [[2004]]. It is called '''Google Mail''' in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]]. Users get 5.7 [[gigabyte]]s of free space to store e-mails. * '''[http://maps.google.com Google Local and Google Maps]''' is an online [[map]] program with [[satellite]] pictures and [[road map]]s. * '''[http://news.google.com Google News]''' is a facility which shows [[news]] stories from over 4,500 news [[source]]s. * '''[http://www.google.com/talk Google Talk]''' is an [[instant messenger]]. * '''[http://video.google.com Google Video]''' is an online [[collection]] of [[video]]s which have been [[upload]]ed by users from around the [[world]]. * '''[http://www.knol.google.com/ Google Knol]''' is an online [[encyclopedia]]. * '''[http://www.sites.google.com/ Google sites]''' is an online site maker. == Other websites == * [http://www.google.com Google] Gallon A '''gallon''' is a [[unit of measurement]] used to measure [[volume]]. People have used many different gallons throughout history. There are three types of gallon still in use. {| |- |1 [[Imperial unit|imperial]] gallon ||= 160 imperial [[fluid ounce]]s (fl. oz.) ** No longer officially used in the United Kingdom. ** |- |||= 8 imperial [[pint]]s |- |||= of a [[firkin]] (of beer) |- |||= of an imperial [[bushel]] |- |||= 4.54609 [[litre]]s (exactly) |- |||≈ litres |- |||≈ 1.20 U.S. wet gallons |- |||≈ 1.03 U.S. dry gallons |- |||= 10 pounds of pure water at room temperature |- ||| |- |1 [[U.S. customary units|U.S.]] wet gallon ||= 231 cubic [[inch]]es = 3 in × 7 in × 11 in ** This is the gallon mostly used in the US. ** |- |||= 128 U.S. fl. oz. |- |||= 8 U.S. wet pints |- |||= of a U.S. oil [[Barrel (unit)|barrel]] |- |||= 3.785411784 litres (exactly) |- |||≈ litres |- |||≈ 0.83 imperial gallons |- |||≈ 0.86 U.S. dry gallons |- |||≈ 8.33 pounds of pure water at room temperature |- ||| |- |1 U.S. dry gallon ||= 268.8025 cubic inches |- |||= 8 U.S. dry pints |- |||= of a U.S. bushel |- |||= 4.40488377086 litres (exactly) |- |||≈ litres |- |||≈ 0.97 imperial gallons |- |||≈ 1.16 U.S. wet gallons |- |} Government A '''government''' is a group of people that has the [[Influence|power]] to rule in a [[territory]], according to the [[law]]. This territory may be a [[country]], a [[state]] or [[province]] within a country, or a region. *Governments make [[law]]s, rules, and regulations, collect [[tax]]es and print [[money]]. *Governments have systems of that list the acts or activities that are against the law and describe the punishments for breaking the law. *Governments have a [[police]] force to make sure people follow the laws. *Governments have [[diplomacy|diplomats]] who communicate with the governments of other [[country|countries]] by having meetings. Diplomats try to solve problems or disagreements between two countries, which can help countries to avoid war, make commercial agreements, and exchange cultural or social experiences and [[knowledge]]. *Governments have a [[military]] force such as an [[army]] that protects the country if other countries attack, or which can be used to attack and invade other countries. *The [[leader]] of a government and his or her [[advisor]]s are called the [[administration]]. == Types of Governments == === [[Democracy]] === *The most common in the Western world is called [[democracy]]. In democracies, all of the people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political party that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on [[legislature]]s such as the [[Parliament]] or [[Congress]]. [[political party|Political parties]] are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people. === [[Monarchy]] === *A monarchy is a government ruled by a king or a queen who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the "royal family." There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no restrictions on his or her commands or powers. In a [[constitutional monarchy]] a ruler's powers are restricted by a document called a [[constitution]]. === [[Aristocracy]] === *An aristocracy is a government by the best people. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility. === [[Dictatorship]] === *Under a dictatorship, the government is run by one person who has absolute power over the people in a country. Originally, the [[Roman Republic]] made dictators to lead during time of war. The Roman dictators (and Greek [[tyrant]]s) were not necessarily bad. The Roman dictators only held power for a limited time. In modern times, a dictator's rule is not restricted by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions. After World War II, many governments in Latin America, Asia, and Africa were controlled by dictators. Examples of dictators include [[Idi Amin]], [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]], and [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]]. === [[Oligarchy]] === * An oligarchy is a government ruled by a small group of powerful individuals. These people may divide power equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some past examples of oligarchy are the former [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] and [[Apartheid]] [[South Africa]]. A fictional example is the society of [[Oceania (Nineteen Eighty-Four)|Oceania]] displayed in the book [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]. Some critics of [[representative democracy]] think of the [[United States]] as an oligarchy. This view is shared by [[anarchism|anarchists]]. == History and Theory of Government== The simplest idea of government is those who [[rule]] over and [[land]]. This may be as small as a community with some sort of board that looks after the goings on of those who live within it or something a little larger like a [[village]] or as big as a [[continent]] (like [[Australia]]). Those people who rule the land can allow others to [[own]] it. It is a [[deed]] by government that gives this right in the way that [[law]]s describe. Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission. This view is called [[libertarianism]]. Others think they can do so together as a group with others if they live in [[peace]], without government. This view is called [[anarchism]]. Almost every place on [[Earth]] is connected to one and only one government. Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small [[border dispute]]d areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there. For every place on Earth there is a government that claims [[sovereign control]] over it. The word "sovereign" is old and means "control by a [[King]]" ([[sovereign]]). Governments of [[village]]s, [[city|cities]], [[county|counties]] and other [[community|communities]] are also subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the [[country]]. It is from Kings and [[feudalism]] that modern governments and [[nation-state]]s came. The [[Capital (city)|capital]] of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his [[asset]]s. From this we get the modern idea of [[capital (economics)|capital]] in [[economics]]. A government is said to [[regulate]] [[trade]] as well as to rule over land. Governments also control people and decide things about what [[morality]] to accept or [[punish]]. In very many countries, there are strict rules about [[sexual intercourse]] and [[drug]]s that are part of [[law]] and offenders are punished for disobeying them. [[Tax]] is how government is paid for in most countries. People who [[buy]], [[sell]], [[import]], [[invest]], own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the [[money]] to a government. There are many theories of how to organize government better. These are called theories of [[civics]]. Because government is run by people who can be greedy, many people think [[leader]]s must be [[elect]]ed by some kind of [[democracy]]. That way, if government does not act nice, they can be replaced in the next [[election]]. Still many countries' governments are not a [[democracy]] but other forms in which only a few people have power. There are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other. These theories are part of [[politics]]. No matter how a government is chosen, it must do politics to keep [[power]]. There are many ideas about how to settle a without needing force or violence but by talking and [[trust]]ing. This is part of [[ethics]]. When [[religion]] convinces people not to fight or rely on government, we say an [[ethical tradition]] is at work. Most law comes from traditions like that. The [[Ten Commandments]] is one group of laws like that. Galaxy ''For the automobile, see [[Ford Galaxy]].'' , our galaxy might look like. It is impossible to take a picture of our galaxy because we are ''in'' it ]] A '''galaxy''' is a group of many [[stars]] including [[gas]], [[dust]], and [[dark matter]]. [[Gravity]] holds galaxies together. Everything in a galaxy moves around a [[centre]]. The name galaxy is taken from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''Galaxia'' meaning [[milk]]y, a reference to the our own galaxy, the [[Milky Way]]. There are three main types of galaxies: [[Elliptical Galaxy|ellipticals]], [[Spiral Galaxy|spirals]], and [[Irregular Galaxy|irregulars]]. All Galaxies exist inside the [[universe]]. There are an estimated one hundred billion galaxies within distance we can see or the Observable Universe. Each galaxy contains roughly one hundred thousand to one trillion stars. This makes the number of stars in the Universe more than every grain of sand on every beach on [[Earth]]. We can describe galaxies by the number of stars they have. The galaxy we call the [[Small Magellanic Cloud]] has about one billion stars in it. This is a small galaxy in comparison to most, but it isn't the smallest: [[Leo I]] and [[Leo II]] have about 1 million stars in them, and the [[Draco System]] has "only" a few hundred thousand stars. Astronomers call these galaxies "dwarf galaxies." In general, smaller groups are called "star clusters," not galaxies (a "cluster" is a group of something, like a cluster of [[grape]]s.) The largest star cluster, a globular cluster called Messier 15 has about 6 million stars, so we see that for small galaxies, there is a blurring together of what we mean by a galaxy and a large star cluster. In addition to their mass and numbers of stars, a galaxy is a collection of stars and gas which move through the universe independently of the Milky Way. Globular clusters are roundish swarms of stars that orbit the Milky Way, while the Leo and Draco Systems seem to be independent collections of stars. Many galaxies also continue to form new generations of stars. The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see above image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year. These stars are formed in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1 to 10 percent of the mass of these galaxies. Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up. It is hard to say if the galaxies we see are all that there really are. It is even hard to say if "are" means anything if we can never see or measure them. [[Models of our universe]] are sometimes finite, and sometimes infinite - if they are infinite we can never see all the galaxies. Often galaxies are also known as island universes. Geometry '''Geometry''' is a kind of [[mathematics]] used to work with [[shape]]s. ===Examples of Shapes in Geometry=== There are [[flat]] shapes and [[solid]] shapes in geometry. [[square (geometry)|Square]]s, [[circle]]s and [[triangle]]s are some of the simplest shapes in [[flat]] geometry. [[Cube]]s, [[cylinder]]s, [[cone]]s and [[sphere]]s are simple shapes in [[solid]] geometry. ===Measuring in Geometry=== Geometry can be used to [[measure]] the [[area]] and [[perimeter]] of a flat shape. It can also be used to measure a [[solid]] shape's [[volume]] and [[surface area]]. ===How is Geometry Used?=== Many things have the shapes found in geometry. Geometry can be used to measure many things by seeing them as made of geometrical shapes. For example, geometry can help people find: *the surface area of a [[house]], so they can buy the right amount of [[paint]] *the [[volume]] of a [[box]], to see if it is big enough to hold a [[litre]] of [[food]] *the area of a [[farm]], so it can be divided into equal parts *the [[distance]] around the [[edge]] of a [[pond]], to know how much [[fence|fencing]] to [[buy]]. ===Where Did Geometry Come From?=== Geometry began as the art of [[measure|measuring]] the shape of [[land]] so that it could be shared fairly between people. It means to measure the land. It has [[grown]] from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics. The [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[Mathematics|mathematician]] [[Euclid]] wrote the first book about geometry. ==Some Simple [[Idea]]s in Geometry== In mathematics, geometry starts with a few simple ideas: A '''[[point (geometry)|point]]''' is shown on [[paper]] by [[touch]]ing it with a [[pencil]] or [[pen]], without making any [[sideways]] movement. We know where the point is, but it has no [[size]]. A '''[[straight]] [[line]]''' is the [[short]]est [[distance]] between two points. For example, Sophie pulls a piece of [[string]] from one point to another point. A straight line between the two points will follow the [[path]] of the tight string. A '''[[plane]]''' is [[flat]] [[surface]] that does not in any [[direction]]. A [[ball]] placed any place on this flat surface will not move if [[gravity]] on the surface is [[constant]]. Graph theory '''Graph Theory''' is about analyzing Graphs. A [[graph]] is a group of [[point]]s and [[line]]s connecting each other, to make a [[picture]] of such a [[route]]. It is less detailed than a [[map]] and is used to find answers. For example: * What is the best way for a [[mailman]] to get to all of the [[house]]s in the area in the least amount of [[time]]? The points could represent [[street]] corners and lines could represent the houses along the street. (see [[Chinese postman problem]]) * A salesman has to visit different customers, but wants to keep the distance traveled as small as possible. The problem is to find a way so they can do it. This problem is known as [[Travelling Salesman Problem]] (and often abbreviated ''TSP''). It is among the hardest problems to solve. If it is true that P!=NP as is commonly believed, then an exact solution requires one to try all possible routes to find which is shortest. * How many colors would be needed to color a map? The points could represent the different areas and the lines could represent that two areas are neighboring. (look at the [[Four color theorem]]) * Can a sketch be drawn in one closed line? The lines of the drawing are the lines of the graph and when two or more lines collide, there is a point in the graph. The task is now to find a way through the graph using each line one time. (look at [[Seven Bridges of Königsberg]]) ==Different kinds of Graphs== *Graph theory has many aspects. Graphs can be directed on undirected. An example of a directed graph would be the system of roads in a city. Some streets in the city are one way streets. This means, that on those parts there is only one direction to follow. *Graphs can be weighted. An example would be a road network, with distances, or with [[toll]]s (for roads). *The nodes (the circles in the schematic) of a graph are called [[vertex|vertices]]. The lines connecting the nodes are called [[edge]]s. There can be no line between two nodes, there can be one line, or there can be multiple lines. ==Graph theory in perspective== Graph theory is an important part of mathematics and computer science. To many such problems, exact solutions do exist. Many times however, they are very hard to calculate. Therefore, very often, [[approximation]]s are used. There are two kinds of such approximations, [[Monte-Carlo algorithm]]s and [[Las-Vegas algorithm]]s. Graphs are normally represented by two different sets, typically set a graph G would be represented as the collection of the sets V and E. The set V is a discrete set containing all vertices of the graph. The set E is a binary set, whose pairwise elements are elements of set V. Each pair in set E represents an edge connecting two vertices. If for all elements v1 and v2 of the [[set]] V, if {v1, v2} and {v2, v1} are both elements of E then the graph G is considered a Complete Graph. I would move forth to define a Path, a Walk, A weighted graph, a directional graph. Then make a comment about how all trees are just subsets of graphs. It could also be proven that all connected graphs may be represented as a Tree. There is more to graph theory than explained here. Goatee A '''goatee''' is a [[beard]] formed by a tuft of [[hair]] under the chin, resembling that of a billy goat. == Other websites == *[http://www.goatee.org Information on goatees] Main Page __NOTOC__ {{Main Page panel| |1= "> Welcome to "> the '''free [[encyclopedia]]''' that
"> type=search2 buttonlabel=Search width=22 id=MP "> Search the articles in the [[Simple English Wikipedia]]
'''·'''
(for users wanting to make changes from a school)
}} }} {{Main Page panel| {{Main Page subpanel|column=left|title=About Wikipedia|1= }} {{Main Page subpanel|column=right|title=Selected article|1= - 0) mod 13 + 1}}}} }} | {{Main Page subpanel|column=both|title=Did you know...|1= }} }} {{Main Page panel| {{Main Page subpanel|column=both|title=Knowledge groups|1= }} | {{Main Page subpanel|column=both|title=Sister projects|1= }} | {{Main Page subpanel|column=both|title=Other languages|1= }} }} Herm '''Herm''' is the [[small]]est of the [[Channel Islands]] that is open to the public. Herm is only 1½ miles long. [[Car]]s are banned from the small [[island]] just like its Channel Island neighbour, [[Sark]]. Unlike Sark, [[bicycle]]s are banned too. The sandy white beaches make Herm a walker's paradise. Population: 60 ([[2002]]) {| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="300px" |+ '''Herm''' |----- " align="center" colspan="2" | {| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" |----- | align="center" width="140px" | [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/gb-herm.gif flag] | align="center" width="140px" | [http://www.ngw.nl/int/cha/images/herm.gif coat of arms] |----- | align="center" width="140px" | (In Detail) | align="center" width="140px" | (Full size) |} |----- " | ''National : none'' |----- | [[Official language]] || English |----- | [[List of tenants of Herm|Tenants]] [[Adrian Heyworth]] and
[[Pennie Wood Heyworth]] |----- - % water |
[[1 E6 m²|2 km²]]
Negligible |----- | [[Population]] - Total ([[2002]]) - [[Population density|Density]] |
60
xxx/km² |----- | [[Currency]] || Pound Sterling |----- | [[Time zone]] | [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +0 |----- | [[National anthem]] || [[Sarnia Cherie]] ([[Guernsey]]) |----- | [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] || .GG ([[Guernsey]]) |----- | [[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]] | XX |} Image:Haven van Herm bij eb.JPG|Harbour of Herm at low tide Image:St Tugual's Chapel op Herm.jpg|St. Tuguals Chapel on Herm History '''History''' is the study of the past. People know what has happened in the past by looking at ''from'' the past: [[book]]s, [[newspaper]]s and [[letter]]s. [[Library|Libraries]], [[archive]]s or [[museum]]s collect and keep these things for studying history. A person who studies history is called a [[historian]]. A person who study [[prehistory]] is called an [[archaeologist]] and they study [[Artifact (archaeology)|artefact]]s like [[pottery]] and stone tools instead of written sources. People can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened in the past. This is called [[oral history]]. When people who had been [[slavery|slaves]] and [[American Civil War]] [[survivor]]s got old, some historians recorded everything that they said, so that history would not be lost. In old times people in different parts of the world kept different histories because they did not meet each other very often. Some groups of people never met each other. [[Medieval]] [[Europe]], [[Ancient Rome]] and [[Ancient China]] all thought that they ruled the only important parts of the world and that other parts were "[[barbarian]]". *[[Pre-history]] * [[Ancient history]] ** [[Sumer]] ** [[Ancient Egypt]] ** [[Babylonia]] **[[Ancient Armenia]] ** [[Ancient Greece]] ** [[Ancient India]] ** [[Ancient China]] and [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Mongolia]] ** [[Ancient Southeast Asia]] - [[Cambodia]] - [[Thailand]] - [[Indonesia]] ** [[Ancient North America]] - [[Iroquois]], [[Mohawk]], [[Huron]], [[Haida]], [[Lenape]], [[Mohican]], [[Cree]], [[Sioux]], [[Inuit]], [[Dene]] ** [[Ancient Central America]] - [[Aztecs]], [[Maya]], [[Olmecs]], [[Toltecs]], [[Teotihuacan]], [[Mixtecs]] ** [[Ancient South America]] - [[Inca]], [[Chimu]], [[Tihuanacu]], [[Huari]] ** [[Ancient Africa]] ** [[Ancient Australia]] * [[Roman Empire]] * [[Christian Rome]] - [[Justinian]] to the rise of [[Byzantium]] * [[Chinese Dynasties]] * [[Byzantine Empire]] * [[Early Islamic Caliphate]] - [[Muhammad]] to [[The Crusades]] * [[Early Middle Ages]] - end of European Dark Ages to rise of [[Roman Catholic Church]] * [[High Middle Ages]] and [[the Crusades]] - conflict with [[Islam]], [[Cathar]]s, [[pagan]] tribes in [[Lithuania]], etc. * [[Late Middle Ages]] - [[13th century]] to [[15th century]] * [[Late Islamic Caliphate]] - to fall of [[Muslim Spain]] * [[Mongol Empire]] * [[Renaissance]] - 15th century renewal of [[science]] etc., based on texts from Ancient Greece and Roman Empire that were preserved by Muslims and captured by Christians * [[European colonization of the Americas]] - 15th century impact on America **[[Spanish Empire]] **[[British Empire]] * [[Baroque era]] - mid [[16th century]] to mid-late [[18th century]] ** Conflict of [[Ottoman Empire]] with [[Austria-Hungary]] ** Rise of the [[Qing Dynasty]] in China * [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] - mid [[17th century]] to late [[18th century]] * [[19th century]] **[[British Empire]] * [[20th century]] **[[History of Australia]] since colonizing [[Australia]] **[[United States#History|History of the United States]] since [[American Revolution]] * [[Modern History]] and origins of modern [[world power structure]] ** [[World War I]] ** [[World War II]] ** [[United Nations ascendance]] - how it became so central. ** [[Chinese Revolution]], [[Partition of India]], [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) ** US-Soviet [[Cold War]] including [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]], [[Soviet-Afghan War]] ** [[Recent conflicts in the Muslim World]] - [[Arab-Israeli Wars]], [[UN-Iraq War]], [[US invasion of Afghanistan]], [[US invasion of Iraq]] ** [[Recent conflicts in West Africa]] - [[Uganda]], [[Chad]], [[Rwanda]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Liberia]], [[Ivory Coast]], and so on [[Current events]], [[modern economic history]], [[modern social history]] and [[modern intellectual history]] take very different views of the way history has affected the way that we think today. == See also == * [[List of historians]] * [[World History]] Health '''Health''' means many things. *It can mean ''not being sick'' or ''not having [[disease]]'' *It can mean being well (instead of just ''not sick'') *It can talk about a person's physical state. This does not mean that the person does not have disease. A person's health can be good (no disease) or bad (many diseases.) The [[World Health Organization]] ([[acronym]] [http://www.who.int/en/ WHO]) says health is: "A dynamic state of complete physical, mental, spiritual and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." This is not a simple sentence, but this is important to understand. This is what it means in Simple English: *''A dynamic state'' means that a person is ''always changing''. *''complete'' means having all of something. *''physical'' is about the body. *''mental'' is about how we think and feel. *''spiritual'' talks about our [[spirit]] or [[soul]]. It concerns [[religion|religious]] parts of people but not only that: the spiritual aspect of a person can be understood as that which desires peace, hope, security and connectedness to the universe. *''social'' talks about how we live with other people. It is about our family, work, school, and friends. So the WHO means: Health is having ''everything'' we need to be happy. It is not having disease. It is having good food and water. It is having good family and friends. It is having a good spirit. It is having love. It is having a safe place to live. It is learning. It is growing. It is different things for different people. It changes in time for the same person. Harbor ]] '''Harbour''' means to shelter or keep safe. A '''harbor''' (or '''harbour''') is a place where [[ship]]s may shelter. A '''port''' is also a harbour, but is usually bigger. The port will often contain a [[water]] space with wave breakers around the edge, a number of quays or [[pier]]s where the ships may be moored or tied up and a [[transport]] system for taking goods inland. Often [[railway]] and [[road transport]] will be used. Other ways that goods can be moved are [[pipeline transport]] and by using smaller ships on rivers. During the [[D-Day]] operations of [[1944]], two harbours (named [[Mulberry harbour|mulberry]]) were built just off the [[beach]]es where the invasion was going to happen. == See also == *[[Dock]] *[[Dockyard]] *[[Marina]] *[[Naval base]] *[[Quay]] *[[Seaport]] *[[Transport]] *[[Wharf]] Hawaii {{US state | Name = Hawaii | Fullname = State of Hawaii
''Moku'āina o Hawai'i'' | Flag = Flag of Hawaii.svg | Seal = Hawaii state seal.png | Map = Hawaii Islands2.png | Nickname = The Aloha State | Motto = Ua Mau ke Ea o ka Aina i ka Pono | Capital = [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] | LargestCity = Honolulu | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]], [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] | Governor = [[Linda Lingle]] (R)| Senators = [[Daniel Inouye]] (D)
[[Daniel Akaka]] (D) | Representatives = [[Neil Abercrombie]] (D)| [[Ed Case]] (D) | PostalAbbreviation = HI | AreaRank = 43rd | TotalAreaUS =10,931 | TotalArea = 29,311 | LandAreaUS = 6,423| LandArea = 16,638. | WaterAreaUS = 4,507 | WaterArea = 11,672 | PCWater = 41.2 | PopRank = 42nd | 2000Pop = 1,211,537 | DensityRank = 13th | 2000DensityUS = 110.7 | 2000Density = 42.75 | MedianHouseholdIncome = $53,123 | IncomeRank = 8th | AdmittanceOrder = 50th | AdmittanceDate = [[August 21]], [[1959]] | TimeZone = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Hawaii]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-10
(no daylight saving time) | Longitude = 154°40'W to 162°W | Latitude = 18°55'N to 29°N | WidthUS = n/a | Width = n/a | LengthUS =1,522 | Length = 2,450 | HighestPoint = [[Mauna Kea]] | HighestElevUS = 13,796 | HighestElev = 4,205 | MeanElevUS =3,035 | MeanElev = 925 | LowestPoint = [[Pacific Ocean]] | LowestElevUS = 0 | LowestElev = 0 | ISOCode = US-HI | Website = www.hawaii.gov }} '''Hawaii''' is a [[U.S. state]] of the [[United States]]. It is the last state to join the United States. Hawaii became a state on [[August 21]], [[1959]]. It is the only state made only of [[island]]s. Hawaii is also the name of the largest island. The [[Capital (city)|capital]] and largest city of Hawaii is [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] on the island named [[Oahu]]. Hawaii is known as the "Aloha State". ''Aloha'' is a [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] word that has many meanings like welcome, hello and goodbye. Aloha also means love and care. The different meanings are brought together in the term "Aloha Spirit" to describe the friendly people of Hawaii. The state [[flower]] is the yellow [[hibiscus]] (''Hibiscus brackenridgei'' or ma'o hau hele). The state [[bird]] is the [[Nene|Hawaiian goose]] (nene). The state [[fish]] is the [[reef triggerfish]], also called the ''humu humu nuku nuku apua'a''. The state [[tree]] is the [[candlenut]], also called ''kukui''. The state [[song]] is [[Hawaii Ponoi]]. The state is ''Ua mau ke ea o ka aina i ka pono''. In English it says, ''The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness''. The first people of Hawaii were [[Polynesians]]. They came to the islands sometime between 200 and 600 AD. [[Captain]] [[James Cook]] is given [[credit]] for discovering the islands for the Europeans in [[1778]]. Others may have been there before him. Captain Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands for the fourth Earl of Sandwich, [[John Montague]]. [[Kamehameha I]] was the first [[king]] of Hawaii. He united the separate small Hawaiian kingdoms into one large kingdom in [[1795]]. In [[1893]], American soldiers stopped Queen [[Liliuokalani]] from leading Hawaii when American business people took over the government and made their own laws. She was the last [[monarch]] of Hawaii. She also wrote the original words of the song called ''Aloha Oe''. The American business people made Hawaii into a [[republic]] for a short time. The new leader, [[Sanford Dole]] was called the President of Hawaii. In [[1898]], the United States of America took over the government and made Hawaii into a [[territory]]. a long chain of islands. There are eight main islands and many small islands and [[atoll]]s. They are the tops of underwater [[volcano]]s. The main islands are [[Niihau]], [[Kauai]], [[Oahu]], [[Molokai]], [[Lanai]], [[Kahoolawe]], [[Maui]] and [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]]. The biggest [[industry]] of Hawaii is [[tourism]]. Almost 7 [[million]] people visited in [[2000]]. Important [[export]]s are [[sugar]], [[pineapple]], [[macadamia nut]]s, and [[coffee]]. Popular [[tourist site]]s include [[Waikiki Beach]], [[Hawaii Volcanoes National Park]], [[Polynesian Cultural Center]], and the [[USS Arizona Memorial]] at [[Pearl Harbor]]. == References == Honolulu, Hawaii {{Infobox City |official_name = Honolulu, Hawaii |nickname =Sheltered Bay and Crossroads of the Pacific |website = http://www.co.honolulu.hi.us/ |image_skyline = FL-Waikiki.jpg |image_caption = Waikiki neighborhood in Honolulu |image_flag =| |image_seal = |map_caption = Location within the island of [[Oahu]] in the state of [[Hawaii]] |subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]] |subdivision_type1 = [[Political divisions of the United States|State]] |subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Hawaii|County]] |subdivision_name = [[United States]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Hawaii]] |subdivision_name2 = [[City and County of Honolulu]] |leader_title = [[Mayor of Honolulu|Mayor]] |leader_name = [[Mufi Hannemann]] |area_magnitude = 1 E8 |area_total_sq_mi = 105 |area_total_km2 = 272.1 |area_land_sq_mi = 85.7 |area_land_km2 = 222.0 |area_water_sq_mi = 85.7 |area_water_km2 = 222.0 |population_as_of = 2006 |population_total = 377,357 |population_metro = 909,863 |timezone = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time]] |utc_offset = -10 |timezone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = -10 |latd = 21 |latm = 18 |lats = 32 |latNS = N |longd = 157 |longm = 49 |longs = 34 |longEW = W |elevation_m = Sea Level 0 |elevation_ft = 0 |footnotes = }} '''Honolulu''' is the [[capital (city)|capital]] [[city]] of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Hawaii]]. It is also the largest city in Hawaii and it has the most important [[harbor]]. It is on the south-east shore of the island of [[Oahu]]. Honolulu means "sheltered harbor" in the Hawaiian language. No one knows for sure when Honolulu was first settled or when the name was first used. Honolulu harbor was called Kulolia before foreigners came. The first foreigner was Captain William Brown of the English ship Butterworth, in 1794. He named the harbor Fair Haven. Other foreign captains started calling it Brown's Harbor. The name Honolulu was used some time after that. Honolulu quickly became the most important harbor of Hawaii. At that time, [[sandalwood]] was a big export. Honolulu was also an important supply point for [[whaler]]s. Kamehameha III made Honolulu the capital city of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] in 1850. It was also the capital of the [[Republic of Hawaii]] and the [[Territory of Hawaii]]. It stayed the capital when Hawaii became a state in 1959. Hawaii (island) The '''Island of Hawai'i''' is the largest of the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Hawaiian Islands]], and the southern. The island is built from seven separate [[Shield volcano|shield]] [[volcano]]es that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other. The later volcanoes mostly buried two of the earlier ones. These are (from oldest to youngest): [[Kohala]] (extinct), Ninole ([[extinct]], mostly buried), [[Mauna Kea]] (extinct or [[dormant]]?), [[Hualalai]] (dormant), [[Mauna Loa]] (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and [[Kilauea]] (very active). The largest city on the island is [[Hilo]]. It is on the rainy east side of the [[island]]. The city of [[Kailua-Kona]] is on the west side of Hawaii, and is popular with [[tourists]]. Called locally the "Big Island," its area is 4,038 sq. miles (10 458 square kilometers). The widest part of the island is 93 miles (150 km) across. The Big Island makes up more than half (~62%) of the total land area of the [[Hawaii|State of Hawaii]] and is governed under the [[Hawaii County, Hawaii|County of Hawaii]]. ==Reference== *MacDonald, G. A., and A. T. Abbott. 1970. ''Volcanoes in the Sea''. Univ. of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 441 p. Hawaii Ponoi "'''Hawai`i Pono`i'''" is the [[state song]] of [[Hawaii]]. The words were written by King [[David Kalakaua]], the music by Prof. Henry Berger, the Royal Bandmaster. "Hawai`i Ponoi" was also the anthem of the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the Territory of Hawai`i. ==Lyrics== Hawai`i pono`i
Nana i kou, mo`i
Kalani Ali`i,
1ke Ali`i.
Makua lani e
Kamehameha e
Na kaua e pale
Me ka ihe.
===Translation=== Hawai`i's own true sons,
be loyal to your chief
Your country's liege and lord,
The chief.
Father above us all,
Kamehameha
Who guarded in the war
With spears.
Healing '''Healing''' is a process that happens in the [[body]]. Through healing, [[cell]]s are able to repair damaged [[tissue]]. There are two different ways healing can happen: * The damaged tissue is replaced with tissue of the same kind. This is called ''regeneration''. * The damaged tissue is replaced with [[scar]] tissue. This is called ''repair'' Most healing processes combine both ways of healing. ==Other websites== * [http://www.childrenshospital.org/cfapps/research/data_admin/Site97/mainpageS97P5.html How wounds heal and tumors form] With this simple Flash demonstration, Harvard professor Donald Ingber explains how wounds heal, why scars form, and how tumors develop. Presented by Children's Hospital Boston. * [http://chestofbooks.com/health/ Natural Healing public domain books] * [http://www.orthoteers.co.uk/Nrujp~ij33lm/Orthwound.htm Wound Healing] * [http://www.emedicine.com/plastic/topic411.htm Wound Healing and Repair] * Lorenz H.P. and Longaker M.T. [http://recon.stanford.edu/Articles/LorenzWH.pdf Wounds: Biology, Pathology, and Management]. Stanford University Medical Center. * Romo T. and McLaughlin L.A. 2003. [http://www.emedicine.com/ent/topic13.htm Wound Healing, Skin]. Emedicine.com. * Rosenberg L. and de la Torre J. 2003. [http://www.emedicine.com/plastic/topic457.htm Wound Healing, Growth Factors]. Emedicine.com. History of Australia People have lived in '''[[Australia]]''' for more than 50,000 years. The first people in Australia were the [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal people]]. We think they came by [[boat]] from the [[island]]s of what is now [[History of Indonesia|Indonesia]]. They lived in all parts of Australia. Their lives were simple, they had very few needs. They lived by [[hunting]], [[fishing]] and gathering food. They lived in [[Band (anthropology)|bands]], and they spoke many different [[language]]s. In 1606 people from [[the Netherlands]], [[France]], and [[Britain]] found the land currently known as Australia. First they found the north and west coast. This was dry and apparently uninhabitable land, and they found no economic reasons to stay. But in 1770 a British sailor, Captain [[James Cook]], encountered the east coast of Australia. He called it [[New South Wales]], and claimed it for Britain. He thought it would be a good place to settle. In 1788 the British sent a fleet of ships to settle Australia. Britain needed a place to send its [[convict]]s (people who had been sent to [[jail]] for [[theft]] and other [[crime]]s). Its jails were full. This First Fleet settled at a place they called [[Sydney]]. For the first few years they did not have much [[food]], and life was very hard. But soon they began to [[farm]], and more people came. Sydney grew, and new towns were started. Soon people from [[Sydney]] found other parts of Australia. George Bass and Matthew Flinders sailed south to [[Tasmania]]. [[Hamilton Hume]] and William Hovell went south by land. They found the [[Murray River]], and good land in [[Victoria]]. Thomas Mitchell went inland, and found more rivers. Others went north and found [[Queensland]]. Soon more towns and cities were started. Then, gold was found in 1851. Many more people wanted to come to Australia. The country grew very fast, and some people became very rich. As the towns and farms spread across Australia, the Aboriginal people were pushed off their land. Some were [[kill]]ed, and many [[die]]d from [[disease|illness]] and hunger. Soon few were left, and they were made to live on small reserves. In 1840 Britain stopped sending convicts to Australia. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and not be told what to do from London. So in 1851 New South Wales, Victoria and the other colonies established their own Parliaments, where they could make their own laws. The goldrushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to massive immigration and population growth across south east Australia and the generation of great wealth and industry. ==The Commonwealth of Australia== Until 1901, Australia was not a [[nation]], it was six separate [[colony|colonies]] governed by Britain. This worked well when everybody was British and there were only a few people. But now there was thousands of people and many of them had never been to Britain, an eight month journey away by sea. If people in one colony wanted to buy or sell things to people in another colony, they had to ask permission. They decided to join together to form one new country, the Commonwealth of Australia. This was called Federation, and happened in 1901. But Australia was still part of the British Empire, and still felt very close to Britain and the British King. Australia soon had its own money, and its own Army and Navy. Because Australia was a very big country, and was so close to Asia, the Australians feared that people from Asia might take the country over. So they passed a law that only people from Britain or other European countries could come to Australia. This was called the White Australia Policy. It lasted for more than 60 years. In Australia at this time, the [[trade union]]s were very strong, and they started a political party, the Labor Party. Australia passed many laws to help the [[worker]]s. Australia was also one of the first places in the world where women could vote. In 1914, the [[World War I|First World War]] started in Europe. Australia joined in on the side of Britain and [[France]], against [[Germany]]. Australian soldiers were sent to Gallipoli, in Turkey. They fought bravely, but were beaten by the Turks. Today Australia remembers this battle every year on ANZAC Day. They also fought in [[France]] and [[Belgium]]. More than 60,000 Australians were killed in the war. In 1939 the [[World War II|Second World War]] broke out. Again Australia joined in to help Britain. But in 1941 [[Japan]] attacked Australia, and Australians had to fight close to home for the first time. Many people feared that Japan would invade Australia. But with help from the [[United States]], the Japanese were stopped. After the war, Australia became a close friend of the United States. When the war ended, Australia felt that it needed many more people to fill the country up and to work. So the government said it would take in people in Europe who had lost their homes in the war. Over the next 25 years, millions of people came to Australia. They came from [[Italy]], [[Greece]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Poland]] and other countries in Europe. Later they also came from countries like [[Turkey]] and [[Lebanon]]. In the 1960s the White Australia Policy was ended. Many people came to Australia from [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Malaysia]] and other countries in [[Asia]]. Some Australians began to think of their country as being a part of Asia for the first time. But other Australians did not like this and said that Australia should keep its European character. In the 1960s and 1970s Australia became one of the richest countries in the world, because it could [[mining|mine]] a lot of [[iron]] and other things from the ground that other countries wanted to buy. Companies from [[United States]] and [[Europe]] came to Australia to increase their [[profit]]s, and many Australians got jobs with them. Australia also supported the United States in wars in [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]] and [[Iraq]]. Some Australians protested against these wars. Australia's [[democracy]] meant that both sides could say what they thought. Today Australia is a rich, peaceful and democratic country. But it still has many problems. Some people are still poor, mainly those who do not have jobs, or whose farms do not make enough money. The Aboriginal people want some of their lands back, and Australians do not agree on what to do about this. Australia also doesn't know what to do with [[refugee]]s - people who come to Australia by boat saying they have nowhere else to go. Some Australians want to let them stay and live in Australia, but some other Australians do not want to let them in. == Other Websites == *[http://www.atmitchell.com/journeys/history/ History of the Australian nation - State Library of NSW] *The [http://gutenberg.net.au/aust-history.html Australian History] page at [http://gutenberg.net.au Project Gutenberg of Australia] *[http://www.bushpoetry.org.au/ Bush Poetry a source of Australian History] *[http://www.brueckenbach.net/blog/index.php?/archives/61-Versuch-zur-Voelkerverstaendigung-6-Know-what-Im-sayin.html An Aborigine on his understanding of tradition] History of Spain Spain is a country located in Europe. ===Early History=== have lived on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] for about 500,000 years. [[Neanderthal]] man came about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans first came about 40,000 years then people from Northern Europe called the [[Visigoths]] fought for Spain and won it from the Romans. They were [[Christian]]s, and they controlled Spain for two hundred years. made by the [[Iberian]]s]] A lot of people took over Spain from the 13th century but by the end of the 19th Century Spain was fairly poor ,and was ruled by French people. [[Britain]] sent its own troops to defend Spain since it was so weak. This put first France, then Britain, in control of Spain for the rest of that century. Today Britain has strong ties to Spain from this time. 19th century [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]]s from Europe eventually decided to fight to take Spain from the Muslims. They fought wars for many hundreds of years, some of which were [[Crusades]] against other [[Christian]]s like the [[Cathar]]s. These were very cruel wars. In the year [[1492]], they took the last part of Spain that had belonged to the Moors. Internal feuds, corruption, and divisions had caused [[Baghdad]] to fall to the [[Mongol]]s in [[1258]]. Spain went similarly. [[Boabdil]], the last Moorish Prince of [[Granada]], gave the keys to King Ferdinand of Aragon on [[2 January]] [[1492]]. It was he who now ruled all of Spain: Before this, several different kings had ruled different countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Aragon]], came together when the king of Aragon, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]], married the queen of Castile, [[Isabella of Castile|Isabella]]. In the same year, 1492, they decided to send [[Christopher Columbus]] to explore the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Columbus found a land there that the people of Europe did not yet know. These were the islands of the [[Caribbean Sea]]. ===Late [[15th century]]=== Columbus and other sailors explored more and found that there were two [[continent]]s there - [[North America]] and [[South America]]. Spain sent many soldiers and businessmen to North and South America, and they took over very large parts of those two continents. Owning this [[empire]] made Spain very rich. But when they conquered that empire, they killed millions of the [[Native American]]s who had lived there before. Spain owned this empire for more than three hundred years. Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or spread to other countries. Jews had been expelled from Spain. The multicultural society was destroyed, and so was the learning. Among the few things kept and respected in Spain were in [[music]]: [[harmony]] and [[stringed instrument]]s, and of course the buildings, many of which became churches, by adding crosses. ==[[16th century]] and [[17th century]]== The [[Spanish Empire]] was the strongest in the world through most of the next two centuries, thanks to [[gold]] from the [[Americas]]. This new gold made rulers and colonial governors rich. Meanwhile others' savings became worth less due to [[inflation]]. Spain became a society of very rich and very poor. Some of the poorest went to the new colonies in the [[Caribbean]], [[Central America]] and [[South America]], mostly to find gold. [[Native American]] peoples were killed by [[disease]]s brought by the Spaniards, but most Spaniards did not know this. They found damaged and dying societies with people who had lost some of their most important leaders and thinkers. The Spaniards thought this meant they were inferior, and used this as an excuse to enslave the natives. Millions of natives died mining gold for the Spanish. The Spanish Empire also at this time funded the [[Spanish Inquisition]] which tortured and killed anyone who disagreed with the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The [[Reformation]] which created [[Protestant]] [[sect]]s in Europe was not allowed into Spain, it was kept out and, as with Jews or Muslims, its believers were killed. The [[noble]]s of Spain no longer had to fight anyone since the internal feuds were over. No one could challenge their power. In many ways it was held together as a [[reign of terror]]. People who challenged them were often called [[heretic]]s, so that the Inquisition could torture them, and then nobles take the property. For ordinary people on both sides of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], life got worse. A few rulers got rich. Today we would say that these people were guilty of [[war crime]]s, [[genocide]] and [[crimes against humanity]]. Many Church people who had the power to speak out at that time, did so, and they said many of the same things as we would say today. But none of this mattered much to the rulers. The great [[satire]] [[Don Quixote]] was written about this time. ==18th century== this doubt led many of the kings of Europe to fight to become king of Spain. This was called the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. all of the parts of that empire became their own countries, or were taken over by other countries such as the [[United States|United States of America]]. ==[[19th century]]== Spain was poor by the end of this time, and was invaded by [[Napoleon]]. [[Britain]] sent its own troops to defend Spain since it was so weak. This put first France, then Britain, in control of Spain for the rest of that century. Today Britain has strong ties to Spain from this time. ==20th century== There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the [[20th century]]. Some [[Spaniards]] tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a [[democracy]]), and they made the [[King]] of Spain leave the country. However, in [[1936]], two different groups of [[Spaniards]] went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, or take orders from one person. In [[1939]], those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a [[dictator]] named [[Francisco Franco]] took over the government. instead, he chose to set up a democracy. Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does [[business]] with many countries around the world. It is a part of the [[European Union]]. Height '''Height''' is the [[distance]] between the lowest end and highest end of an . For example, people consider the bottom of the foot a person's lowest end, and the top of the head a person's highest end. The distance between my lowest end--the bottom of my foot--and my highest end--the top of my head--measures out to 64 [[inch]]es, so my height measures out to 64 inches too. ''My height is 64 inches.'' == See also == * [[Width]] * [[Depth]] *[[High and low]] *[[Elevation]] Historian A '''historian''' is someone who [[study|studies]] [[history]]. :''See also:'' [[List of historians]] Human death '''Human death''' is the end of sharable human [[personal experience]] - if anything happens to us after death, we are not able to clearly communicate it. Such rituals as a [[seance]] claim to be able to '''speak to the dead''' but this is not claimed to be very reliable, even by those who do them very often. == What is our death? == [[Death]] occurs to every [[life form]] and it means the [[mind]], [[senses]] and [[body]] stopping. If there is some other part to life such as [[soul]], that could continue without a body ([[afterlife]]), move into another body ([[reincarnation]]), or just go away. [[Religion]]s have different beliefs about this issue. The [[medical view of the body]] is that it is like an animal body and in some ways like a machine. This is a powerful way to see the body because it lets it be "diagnosed" and sometimes "fixed". However this is part of a [[mechanistic paradigm]] with other effects - one of which is a refusal to admit that it may often be better to die than live. Modern [[healing]] protocols like [[palliative care]] allow for this, and for the idea of ''dying healed'' which would make no sense if one thinks of healing as only about [[cure]]s. == What happens after death? == When human [[killing]] is the cause of a human death, usually family members or friends or the state (claiming to act on their behalf or that of others who might be next) seek what can be called or [[harms reduction]] by locking-up or killing the human killer. Also, when animals kill humans, they too are almost always caught and killed. It is considered a very bad thing to let animals taste human flesh, or to have the experience of killing one. In any society, human death is surrounded by [[ritual]] - a [[wake]] or [[funeral]] is normal. In some places it was common to ''eat'' the dead in a form of [[ritual cannibalism]]. But this is no longer common, in part because [[disease]] like [[Kuru (disease)|kuru]] can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are [[taboo]] in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and [[hygiene]] reasons. A human dead body must always be reported in [[law]], to be sure it is disposed of properly. There are always some consequences or requirements for dealing with a human death. == Cover-ups == Hiding a human death is considered very bad - almost as bad as [[homicide]] itself. One of the reasons [[Slobodan Milosevic]] and [[Saddam Hussein]] are said to have committed [[crimes against humanity]] is [[mass grave]]s that were found in [[Bosnia]] and [[Iraq]], which contained many people who opposed them. Today some people continue to deny that [[Adolf Hitler]] killed millions of [[Jew]]s, [[gypsy|gypsies]], [[homosexual]]s and political opponents in his [[death camp]]s during [[World War II]] - this phenomenon is called [[Holocaust denial]]. Cover ups are frequent in the mafia and other organized crime. each of killed approximately half of the population. == Dealing with dead bodies and their property == Finding the cause of any human death, and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else, are the main reasons people look into ''[[human morbidity]]'', or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an [[autopsy]]. Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the [[state]] if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, or tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness. To prepare for their own death, humans can write a [[last will and testament]] to be clear about who gets their [[property]]. A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an [[organ donor]]. This might mean giving the whole body to [[medical research]]. It can also save the lives of others by making [[organ transplant]]s possible. == Religious views of death == Ancient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral. In [[India]] this ritual still does sometimes occur. Old women sometimes carry guns in case their husband's relatives come to throw them on the funeral fire. [[Christianity]] has a special focus on death because of the state killing of [[Jesus Christ]] by the Romans. In [[Islam]] this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it. In [[Christianity]] itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really [[God]] and so could lose his body to show something and still have power. In [[Buddhism]] every being is thought to have this power, and [[reincarnation]] will occur until the being reaches [[enlightenment]] and can escape the [[wheel of life]] to reach [[Nirvana]]. Reincarnation is an idea taken from [[Hinduism]] of course. [[Confucianism]] advises [[filial piety]] and forms of [[ancestor worship]] to respect both dead and living ancestors, who created your body and taught you ethics. == Rituals surrounding death == Every [[ethical tradition]] including the [[medical view of the body]] has some ritual surrounding death. Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual. For instance, one may say that [[organ transplant]] is like [[cannibalism]]. Very much of what happens at a human death is ritual. People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like [[cremation]] of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements. This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish. For the same reason, saying [[goodbye]] is important. Most of the of death seems to come for loved ones who "did not have a chance to say goodbye". Maybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others. == Preparing for death == Aside from wills and goodbyes and organ donation and funerals, there is important [[personal experience]] to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die. [[Palliative care]] focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them. It is a replacement for [[heroic medical intervention]] that may keep them physically alive but with no [[quality of life]]. Human [[psychology]] must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise: [[Elizabeth Kubler-Ross]] wrote that there were several stages in [[dying]], of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last. Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a [[memoir]] or a full [[autobiography]]: Because events leave [[living memory]], and may only be part of [[oral tradition]], there are projects to record everything that people remember about [[World War I]] and the [[Shoah]]. The first of these was to record everything remembered about the [[U.S. Civil War]]. This discipline has changed [[history]] since we have so many more [[first person account]]s of the times, and made [[social history]] much more standard. Human body The '''human body''' is the [[body]] of a person. It is the physical structure of a person. The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by [[death]]. ==Study of the human body== Some people [[study]] the human body. They look at where it is different from or the same as other [[animal]]s' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be [[extinct]] animals like other [[hominid]]s. (Hominids are [[primate]]s that are close to humans. [[Neanderthal]]s and ''[[Homo erectus]]'' were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its [[environment]]. Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.it has many senses which can let him fell pain or other things ''Italic text''it is sometimes called as an animal body -- ([[User talk:82.55.233.13|talk]]) 17:42, 16 October 2008 (UTC)teomagno ==Fields of study== Many different fields of study look at the human penis: *[[Biology]] is a field of [[science]]. It studies living things. It looks at how the human body works. It studies how the human body came from [[evolution]]. It studies how [[genetics]] makes the human body. *[[Ecology]] is a field of science. It studies how the human body senses its [[environment]]. It also studies how humans affect the environment. These actions include using [[natural resources]]. These actions include making [[waste]]. *[[Anthropology]] is a field of science. It compares humans to other [[hominid]]s. It also studies all other hominid bodies. They look at how [[human]]s and [[chimpanzee]]s are the same or different. *[[Psychology]] is a field of [[medicine]]. It looks at how people think and feel. The [[brain]] is part of the body. How we think and feel comes from the brain. So psychologists study the body. They study how the brain lets us be who we are. *[[Religion]] also talks about the body. Some religions see the body as where the [[soul]] lives. Some see the body as like a [[church]]. This is because a church is where people [[worship]] [[God]]. These people think God should be worshiped inside people. Some religions think the body is made from [[chakras]] that connect us to the [[universe]]. *[[Medicine]] sees the body like a [[machine]]. [[Doctor]]s want to fix problems with the body. They study how to fix the problems, called [[disease]]s ==The human body and other animals== Scientists think that the human body is very much like other animals. They see that some human ''behaviors'' are like animal behaviors. (Behaviors are the way an [[organism]] acts.) They know that 98% of the [[DNA]] in humans is the same as other [[primate]]s. The animal that is alive now that is closest to humans is the [[chimpanzee]]. 98.4% of the DNA is the same between humans and chimpanzees. Hydrogen '''Hydrogen''' is a [[chemical element]]. It is the simplest [[atom]] in the Universe.[http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/IntermediateHydrogen.html EIA.doe.gov - What is Hydrogen?] On a [[periodic table]] of the elements, hydrogen is on the top row, usually either on the left, on its own above the [[Transition metal|transition metals]], or Above the [[Halogens]]. Its [[symbol]] in [[science]] is '''H'''. Scientists give atoms what they call an [[atomic number]], and the number they have for hydrogen is 1. In its pure form hydrogen is most commonly found on Earth as a [[gas]]. Hydrogen is often found in [[water]], but a water [[molecule]] is actually made up of one [[oxygen]] atom with two hydrogen atoms stuck on one side. Hydrogen is notable in that it is the [[fuel]] that powers the [[Sun]] and other stars. Pure hydrogen, though, is normally found in groups of two atoms. Scientists call this [[diatomic]]. Hydrogen will have a [[chemical reaction]] when mixed with most other elements. It has no [[color]] nor [[smell]]. It is: * A gas at [[room temperature]] * A [[non-metal]] * The lightest of all the elements in the periodic table * The lightest element in the [[Universe]] * The most common gas element in the Universe However, hydrogen is very uncommon in the [[Earth]]'s [[atmosphere]]. It is mostly found in [[water]] (where it is combined with [[oxygen]]) and in all [[organic compound]]s and living things. [[Hydrocarbon]]s, like [[fossil fuel]]s, are compounds where hydrogen is combined with [[carbon]]. The name "hydrogen" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for [[water]], 'υδορ (pronounced /HEEW-dor/). Hydrogen has two different [[isotopes]] which are heavier types of the Hydrogen atom, they are called: [[deuterium]] and [[tritium]]. These other types of Hydrogen are important in [[nuclear energy]]. == Hydrogen as fuel (fusion) == Scientists believe atoms are made of [[proton]]s, [[neutron]]s and [[electron]]s. From a [[physics]] point of view, hydrogen has one [[proton]], and its variants (atoms that are very like hydrogen), [[deuterium]] and [[tritium]], also have [[neutron]]s. [[Nuclear fusion]] is a very powerful source of [[energy]]. It relies on forcing [[atom]]s together to make [[helium]] and energy, exactly as happens in a [[star]] like the [[Sun]], or in a [[hydrogen bomb]]. This needs a large amount of energy to get started, and is not easy to do yet. A big advantage over [[nuclear fission]], which is used in [[nuclear power]] stations, is that no waste is produced, and no toxic [[fuel]] like [[uranium]] is needed. There is a lot of deuterium in [[seawater]]. There is more than 600 million tons of hydrogen undergoing fusion every second on the sun. == Burning Hydrogen == 1. Water can be easily broken down into hydrogen and oxygen with [[electricity]], but it takes a lot of electricity to get a usable amount of hydrogen. 2. Burning hydrogen combines with oxygen molecules to make [[steam]] (pure water). 3. A fuel cell combines hydrogen through a catalyst with an oxygen [[molecule]] releasing an electron as electricity. == Hydrogen power grid == For these reasons, many people believe hydrogen power will eventually replace [[technology|technologies]] such as [[diesel-electric]] [[engine]]s and [[biodiesel]] fuel. But it is not correct to see hydrogen as a fuel if it is used in a fuel cell. It is more of a replacement for the [[power grid]]. Such a grid and [[infrastructure]] with new [[vehicle]]s might be first made in [[Iceland]], a country that has much free [[geothermal energy]] and is quite small. Because it [[import]]s all [[fossil fuel]], it would help Iceland to completely stop using it. The huge advantage of hydrogen is that when burnt in an engine or in a fuel cell, there is no pollution - just a small amount of water. It's a pain to store, though - it has to be kept under high pressure - and cooled as well. For vehicles, it seems more realistic to use liquid fuels, at least at present. If we did move to a hydrogen economy where could the hydrogen come from? Well, there are many places - it can be extracted from water (but this of course will use more energy than you would get back by using it in a fuel cell or an engine). It can be extracted from various types of plant material - corn is possible, though pretty inefficient. Generally it is probably better to refine such material into a more conventional fuel like ethanol. == References == Helium s such as the [[Goodyear blimp]]]] '''Helium''' is a [[chemical element]]. It has the [[chemical symbol]] '''He''' and [[atomic number]] 2. Helium is called a [[noble gas]], because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new [[Chemical compound|compound]]s. It has the lowest [[boiling point]] of all the elements. It is the second most common element in the [[universe]], after [[hydrogen]], and has no color or smell. Helium does not usually [[Chemical reaction|react]] with anything else. However, it can react with [[tungsten]], [[iodine]], [[fluorine]], [[sulfur]] and [[phosphorus]] under very special conditions. [[Pierre Janssen]] and [[Norman Lockyer]] found helium in [[1868]]. They found that it was in the [[Sun]] before it was found on [[Earth]]. Because of where it was found, its name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for Sun, ''helios''. It is used to fill [[balloon]]s and [[airship]]s because it is [[density|lighter]] than [[air]], and does not burn or react, meaning it is normally safe for using it in that way. It is also used in some kinds of [[light]] bulbs. People also breathe it in to make their [[voice]]s sound higher than they normally do as a [[joke]], but this is extremely dangerous if they breath in too much, since it can kill them, since they are not breathing normal air. Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to [[vocal cords]]. Home page The '''home page''' of a [[web site]] is the that a [[web server]] sends to another [[computer]]'s [[web browser]] [[application]] when it has been contacted without a request for specific information. That is, when you enter only a [[domain name]] in the Address box without specifying a directory or a file, the ''home page'' is usually the first part of the web site you will be taken to. The Home Page is also called the Main Page. A properly written home page will tell a user about the information available in the web site, and how to view different parts of the web site. The home page of ''simple.wikipedia.org'' can be found [[Main Page|at this link.]] '''Home Page''' was a popular computer application used for composing [[web page]]s. Hair '''Hair''' is something that grows from the [[skin]] of [[mammal]]s. The hair of non-human animals is usually called '''[[fur]]'''. Having no hair is called '''baldness'''. [[Human]]s and some other [[animals]] have lost much of their hair through [[evolution]], and some animals, such as the [[elephant]] and the [[whale]], have almost none at all. ==Human hair== In humans, hair grows mostly on the [[head]], and the amount of body hair is different from [[race]] to race. [[Asian]]s and native North Americans have the least amount of body hair, while [[Caucasian]]s tend to have the most. Hair commonly turns white as people age. ===History and culture=== People have been interested in head hair for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, [[styling]] and coloring of hair have been a way to show [[importance]] and [[prestige]]. Sometimes society makes rules to control the amount of hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or [[beard]]s. ===Hair loss=== People have about 100,000 strands of hair on their head. About 100 fall out each day, but they usually grow back. Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as ''baldness'', and doctors call it "[[male pattern baldness]]". Its name comes from the fact that hair loss almost always follows the same pattern. It begins by hair falling out first from the and sides of the head, and thinning from the top of the head, usually until it is all gone. After a while, all that may be left is a [[fringe]] of hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair as they grow old, and the pattern of thinning is the same as it is for men. People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in [[chicken]] [[manure]]. It is only in the last decade or so that [[treatment]]s have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair [[transplant]]s, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some [[drug]]s will cause hair to grow, but this hair is very [[delicate]] and will fall out in a short time if the drug is stopped. == Other websites == * [http://www.allhairtransplant.info/ Hair Transplant] Information on hair transplants Ireland ]] to the east of Ireland, across the [[Irish Sea]], is the island of [[Great Britain]]. The island of Ireland, called ''Éire'' (''Ae-ra'') in the Irish language, is about long and about wide. Six million people live in Ireland. The River Shannon, which runs from north to south, is the longest river. Ireland has many [[lake]]s (or Loughs). Lough Neagh, in Northern Ireland, is the largest lake in Ireland, or the [[British Isles]]. Ireland is known for its beautiful landscapes, history, and [[mythology]]. There are 32 [[County|counties]] in Ireland. The island of Ireland is split into two main parts: *[[Republic of Ireland]], also called Ireland , is made up of 26 counties. Its capital city is [[Dublin]]. The official languages are called [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[English language|English]]. Most people in Ireland can speak a little Irish, but only about a tenth of the population are fluent or native speakers. Almost everyone learns Irish at school, but most people outside the [[Gaeltacht]] speak English in their day-to-day lives. *[[Northern Ireland]] is made up of 6 counties and is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. The capital of Northern Ireland is [[Belfast]]. The capital of the Republic of Ireland is called [[Dublin]]. It is in the east of the country and built on the river Liffey. More than one million people live in Dublin. Internet in the computer]] The '''Internet''' is a [[worldwide]] [[network]] of interconnected [[computer network]]s that [[transmission|transmit]] [[information|data]] by [[packet switching]] using the [[standard]] [[Internet Protocol]] (IP). It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of smaller [[domestic]], [[academic]], [[business]], and [[government]] networks, which together carry various [[information]] and services, such as [[electronic mail]], [[online chat]], [[computer file|file]] transfer, and the interlinked [[Web page]]s and other documents of the [[World Wide Web]]. ==History== The Internet was created in the [[United States]] in [[1969]] by the "United States Department of Defense [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]]" (known as ''ARPA''). The [[World Wide Web]] was created at [[CERN]] in [[Switzerland]] in the 1990s by a [[United Kingdom|British]] (UK) man named [[Tim Berners-Lee]]. Today, people can pay a fee to access the Internet from [[Internet service provider|Internet Service Providers]]. Some services on the Internet cost nothing to use. Sometimes the people who run these free services use [[advertising]] to make money from them. The alternative name, "Net" came from "inter(net)". ==Services on the Internet== The Internet is used for many things, such as [[electronic mail]] (e-mail), [[online chat]], and the World Wide Web. The most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is also called the "Web"). The Web contains [[website]]s, [[blog]]s, and also [[wiki]]s - including [[Wikipedia]]. [[Webpage]]s on the Web can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a password, or it is blocked). The second major use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail. E-mail is [[privacy|private]] and goes from one to another. [[Instant messaging]] (such as [[AIM]] or [[ICQ]]) is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other much quicker. Some governments consider the Internet to be a bad thing, and block some or part of it. For example, the Chinese government think that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in China can read it or add to it. Some [[parent]]s block parts of the Internet they think are bad for [[child]]ren to see. ==Dangers on the Internet== The Internet can also be a dangerous place. Information people put on the Internet is not always checked. *Some websites may trick people into [[download]]ing [[virus]]es that can damage a computer or [[spyware]] that [[spy|spies]] on its users. E-mails can also have dangerous files "attached" to them. *In [[IRC|Internet Chatroom]]s, people might be preying on others or trying to [[stalk]] them. Italy {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname= Republic of Italy| image_flag= Flag of Italy.svg | image_coa=Italy-Emblem.svg | image_location= Europe location ITA.png | nationalmotto= | nationalsong= "Fratelli d'Italia" | nationalflower= n/a | nationalanimal= n/a | officiallanguages= Italian, German, French | populationtotal= 58,751,711 ab. (2005) | populationrank= 22° | populationdensity= n/a | countrycapital= [[Rome]] | countrylargestcity= Rome | areatotal= 301,323 km² | arearank= 69° | areawater= n/a | areawaterpercent= n/a | establishedin= [[March 17]], [[1861]] | leadertitlename= [[President]]: [[Giorgio Napolitano]] [[Prime minister]]: [[Silvio Berlusconi]] | currency= Euro | utcoffset= +1 | dialingcode= +39 | internettld=.it }} '''Italy''' is a [[country]] in western [[Europe]] and a member of the [[European Union]]. Its official name is '''The Italian Republic'''. Italy is a [[democratic]] [[republic]] and a [[Development|developed]] country. It is a founding member of the [[European Union]]. Italy is also a member of the [[G8]], with the 7th largest [[Gross Domestic Product]] in the world. Its president is [[Giorgio Napolitano]]. Before [[1861]], it was made up of small city sates. ==Geography== Italy is a [[peninsula]], meaning it is surrounded by the sea on all sides apart from one (its north side). Northern Italy is separated from [[France]], [[Switzerland]], and [[Austria]] by the [[Alps]], a chain of mountains. [[Mont Blanc]] (''Monte Bianco'' in Italian), the tallest mountain in [[Europe]], belongs to this chain. The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the [[Apennines]] (''Appennini'' in Italian), which are in central and southern Italy. The [[Capital (city)|capital]] of Italy is [[Rome]]. Other important cities in Italy are [[Milan]], [[Turin]], [[Florence]], [[Naples]], and [[Venice]]. The country includes a number of islands, the biggest of which are [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]], which are reached by ship or aircraft. [[Po River]] is the longest river in Italy. The [[Tiber River]] runs through the city of [[Rome]]. Northern Italy has some of the biggest lakes in the country, such as [[Lake Garda]], [[Lake Como]], [[Lake Maggiore]] and [[Lake Iseo]]. Because it is surrounded by the sea, Italy has many kilometers of [[coast]], which brings [[tourism|tourists]] from around the world. Tourists also come to see Italy's many [[history|historical]] places. Italy includes in its territories two very small [[independence|independent]] states, [[San Marino]] and the [[Vatican City]]. ==People and culture== ]] People from Italy are called Italians. Most Italians are [[Christian]], and most of the Christians are [[Roman Catholic]]s. The [[population]] of Italy is about 58.5 million. About 2.5 million of these live in [[Rome]], and 1.5 million in [[Milan]]. The official language of Italy is [[Italian language|Italian]] and in some area German or French. People also speak languages such as ''Sicilian'' and ''Sardinian'', which are similar to Italian, but are different languages, or, dialects. The people of Italy are the descendants of the ancient [[Romans]]. [[Latin]] was one of the first languages of Italy. After the [[United States]] and many other countries in the world, Italy has the largest [[illegal immigrant]] problem in the world. Italy is home to more World Heritage sites than any other nation in the world.http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/ These sites are properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value. Aproximately 60% of the works of [[art]] of the world is concentrated in Italy. Italy makes more wine than any other country. Italy is famous for their [[Italian Wine]], [[Pizza]], fettucine, pasta, linguine, pepperoni, salami, varieties of [[cheese]] and [[Spaghetti]]. ==Regions== Italy is divided into 20 Regions (''Regioni'' in Italian) and every Region is divided into Provinces. There are 20 Regions: is famous for [[Gondola]]s]] *[[Abruzzo]] *[[Basilicata]] *[[Calabria]] *[[Campania]] *[[Emilia-Romagna]] *[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]] * *[[Latium]] (Lazio) *[[Liguria]] *[[Lombardy]] (Lombardia) *[[Marche]] *[[Molise]] *[[Piedmont]] (Piemonte) *[[Apulia]] (Puglia) *[[Sardinia]] (Sardegna) * *[[Sicily]] (Sicilia) * *[[Tuscany]] (Toscana) *[[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]] (Trentino-Alto Adige) * *[[Umbria]] *[[Aosta Valley]] (Valle d'Aosta)* *[[Veneto]] ==Politics== The Head of State is [[Giorgio Napolitano]], whose task began in May [[2006]] and will end in May [[2013]] (the President of the Republic remains for 7 [[year]]s). Napolitano is the eleventh President of the Italian Republic and he was preceded by [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]. The first president was [[Enrico De Nicola]]. The Head of Government is [[Silvio Berlusconi]], leader of a right-wing coalition, since 2008, when he defeated the left-wing coalition of [[Walter Veltroni]]. Italy was one of the first members of the [[European Union]] and in [[2002]], along with 11 other European countries, it changed to using the [[euro]] as its official [[currency]]. Before this, the Italian Lira had been used, from 1881. If you want to become President of Italy, you must have Italian citzsenship, you must be at least 50 years old, and you must not be barred from holding political and civil rights. == History == in Rome is very old]] ]] Before [[1861]], Italy did not exist as a state, because its territory was divided into several independent states, often under foreign domination (by countries such as Austria, France, and Spain). From the 1850s, in Piedmont, a free Italian state, the Earl of Cavour had the idea of defeating the Austrian domination in Lombardy and Veneto to create a Northern Italian state. This happened, but other Central and Southern Italian states also decided to join Piedmont to create a bigger state. Particularly, in 1860, Garibaldi's mission in Southern Italy succeeded in conquering the Kingdom of Sicily, and the Kingdom of Italy was created. Vittorio Emanuele II was crowned King of Italy. But in 1861, Latium and Veneto were still not part of Italy, because they were under the power of the Pope and of the Austrian Emperor. Veneto was added to Italy in [[1866]], after a war against Austria, and Latium along with Rome was conquered by the Italian troops in [[1870]], when they entered the Pontifical State and declared the end of the temporal power of the Pope. The Pope, angry at this usurpation, declared himself prisoner in the Italian State, preventing Catholic people from participating in political life. Finally, in 1870, the Italian state was complete. Italy participated in [[World War I]] as an ally of Great Britain, France, and Russia against the Central Powers. The war was wholly fought on the Eastern border, near Austria. After the '[[Caporetto]] defeat', it seemed that the war would be lost, but in 1918 the Central Powers surrendered, and Italy gained the Trentino-South Tyrol, which once belonged to Austria, though inhabited by Italian people. [[1922]] saw the rise of a new Italian movement, led by [[Benito Mussolini]], leader of Fascism in Italy. He became Head of Government and dictator, calling himself 'duce'. He began a friendship with the German dictator Hitler and followed him into [[World War II]]. Italy entered war only in [[1940]] as an ally of Germany against France, Great Britain and Russia. During the war Italy controlled most of the [[Mediterranean sea]], called in those years by Mussolini the [[Italian Mare Nostrum]]. On [[July 25]], [[1943]], Mussolini was deposed by the Great Council of Fascism and on [[September 8]], [[1943]], [[Badoglio]] declared that the war as an ally of Germany was ended. Italy started fighting as an ally of France and the UK, but Italian troops, due to the confusion deriving from the change, did not know who to shoot at. In Northern Italy a movement called [[Resistenza]] started to fight against the German invaders. Mussolini tried to create another Northern Italian fascist state, the [[Republic of Salò]], but it had no success. On [[April 25]], [[1945]], Italy became free. The state became a republic on [[June 2]], [[1946]], after a referendum in which for the first time women could vote. Italian people decided to put down the Savoia dynasty, who had been reigning since the beginning the state, in favour of a republican government. ==Transportation== km/h (190 [[mph]]). ==Notes== ==See also== *[[Italian cloth]] *[[Italian cuisine]] *[[Italian dressing]] *[[Italian iron]] *[[Italian politics]] *[[Italian Mare Nostrum]] == Other websites == *[http://www.italia.it/ Italia.it] *[http://www.italiantourism.com Italian Tourism] *[http://www.traveldir.org/italy/ Italy Travel Guide] *[http://www.justitaly.org/ Italy] *[http://www.tolomeus.net/italia.html Italy]- VR panoramas by Tolomeus If '''If''' is a word to describe a statement where one thing depends on something else. For example: *We can call this true ''if'' there is proof. *We will play outside ''if'' it does not rain. ---- '''''If —''''' is a poem written by [[Rudyard Kipling]]. It appeared in the ''Brother Square Toes'' chapter of Kipling's book ''Rewards and Fairies''. In a [[1995]] [[BBC]] opinion poll, it was voted [[Britain|Britain's]] favourite poem. It is arguably Kipling's most famous poem. Island An '''island''' is a piece of ground that is surrounded by [[water]]. Water is all around an island. Islands are smaller than [[continent]]s. The largest island in the world is [[Greenland]], unless [[Australia]] is believed to be an island. Some islands are their own countries. Examples of islands that are their own countries include [[Cuba]], [[Iceland]], and [[Madagascar]]. There are many others. Other islands have many countries, for example [[Borneo]] and [[Hispaniola]]. == Large islands== === In Europe === * [[Great Britain]] 218.595 km² * [[Iceland]] 101.826 km² * [[Ireland]] 81.638 km² * The island in the north of [[Novaja Zemlja]] 47.079 km² * [[Spitsbergen]] 38.981 km² * The island in the south of [[Novaja Zemlja]] 33.246 km² * [[Sicilia]] 25.662 km² * [[Kotelny and Faddeyesky]] 24.000 km² * [[Sardegna]] 23.812 km² * [[Nordaustlandet]] 14.247 km² * [[Cyprus]] 9.234 km² * [[Corsica]] 8.741 km² === Other places === * [[Greenland]] 2.175.600 km² * [[Nuova Guinea]] 785.000 km² * [[Borneo]] 736.000 km² * [[Madagascar]] 587.000 km² * [[Baffin Island|Baffin]] 476.000 km² * [[Sumatra]] 420.000 km² Immigrant '''Immigrants''' are people who move to another [[country]] or [[region]] than their own to live there. ''Immigrant'' and ''emmigrant'' do not mean the same thing. An ''immigrant'' is a person that leaves his or her own country or region and an ''emmigrant'' is a person that comes from other country or region. The phrases "many people emigrated from [[Europe]] in the 19th century to [[United States|America]]" and "many people immigrated to [[United States|America]] from [[Europe]] in the 19th century" have the same meaning. ==See also== * [[Refugee]] Interim '''Interim''' means "in between" or "transitional" (moving from one time or place to another), or "temporary." Some common "interim" items: * An '''interim report''' is a report on the how some work is going. * An '''interim document''' is a piece of writing that is not finished. * An '''interim official''' is a person who is doing a job temporarily. This can be in between two other people having the job, or when the normal person is temporarily unable to do it. For example, a school can have an interim [[principal]] (headteacher), or a country can have an interim [[prime minister]]. The interim person might be called an [[acting]] headteacher or [[acting]] prime minister. * An interim business agreement * An interim [[ceasefire]] * An interim [[constitution]] Idiom An '''idiom''' is a [[word]] or [[phrase]] which means something different from what it says - it is usually a [[metaphor]]. Idioms are common phrases or terms whose meanings are not literal, but are figurative and only known through their common use. Because idioms can mean something different from what the words mean it is difficult for someone not very good at speaking the language to use them properly. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom ''break a leg'', means ''good luck'' to an actor about to start acting, but not to other people. Idioms are not the same thing as [[slang]]. Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known by almost everyone. Slang is usually special words that are known only by a particular group. To learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture the idiom comes from. To know the history of an idiom can be useful and interesting, but is not necessary to be able to use the idiom properly. For example most native British English speakers know that "No room to swing a cat" means "there was not a lot of space" and can use the idiom properly, but few know it is because 200 years ago sailors were punished by being whipped with a whip called a "cat o'nine tails". A big space was cleared on the ship so that the person doing the whipping had a lot of room to ''swing the cat''. ==Some Common Idioms== * ''Break a leg'' : A way to wish someone good [[luck]]. * ''Live it up'' : Live wild, Enjoy life , go to a lot of parties * ''Kick the bucket'' : To [[death|die]]. * ''Shed crocodile tears'' : To cry about something but without actually caring. * ''wild goose chase'' : Useless journey or pursuit * ''No room to swing a cat'' : There was not a lot of space * ''Pay through the nose'' : Pay a lot of money * ''Run like the wind'' : To run fast ==Addendum== A better understanding of an idiom is that it is a phrase whose meaning cannot be understood from the dictionary definitions of each word taken separately. In this case, a metaphor is not an idiom. The meaning of the saying "pay through the nose" or "run like the wind" can be understood by looking the words up in a dictionary and using some common sense and imagination and the context of the phrase. Better examples of idioms would be: * "to let the cat out of the bag" : to reveal a secret * "to chicken out" : afraid to do something * "to give up" doing something : to quit * "to give up on" something : to quit believing or hoping in something or somebody In each of the above cases, to a language learner, the meaning of the phrases cannot be understood from the dictionary definitions of the words, nor from the context in which they are used. IELTS The '''International English Language Testing System''' (IELTS) tests how good you are at [[English language]]. People who take the test take the Academic Module or the General Training Module. The academic one is for people who want to go to university. The general one is for people who want to do other training or want to get work experience. People who want to emigrate to a country that uses English also take the general one. Most universities in Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and the United States accept the IELTS. Many professional companies do as well. See also: [[International English]] == Other websites == *[http://www.ielts.org/ IELTS Web Site] *[http://www.ielts-blog.com IELTS - free exam preparation worldwide] *[http://www.activeielts.com Free IELTS advice and practice] *[http://www.teachingsolutions.org/mttc.html MTTC test] Ink '''Ink''' is a [[liquid]] that we use to [[write]], [[draw]], print, or make marks. The word ink is from [[Latin language|Latin]] and means "colored water". Ink is used in [[pen]]s, in some computer printers, and in [[printing press]]es. In some countries, people write by using ink and [[brush]]es. People usually write or print using black ink, but ink can be any [[color]]. The first ink was used in [[Egypt]] and [[China]] about 2600 BC. A disadvantage of many kinds of ink is that they may smudge when wet, spoiling the picture or writing. The first inks were carbon inks, made from soot, which is 80% [[carbon]]. Later, in Europe, people used iron gall ink. This is the kind of ink [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]] used. Ink in a ball point pen is held in a thin long [[cylinder]] (tube) inside the pen. The ink does not fall out of the cylinder as it sticks to the sides of the tube. ==References== *. Indian The word '''Indian''' means from or about the country of the modern [[Republic of India]] or Bharat. It refers to a person from India. Many different [[language]]s are used in India, so there is no one language called "Indian". Some languages of India are [[Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], [[Urdu]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Bengali]], [[Kannada]], [[Tamil]], and [[Telugu]]. The word '''Indian''' is also sometimes used for the people who were in [[North America]], [[Central America]], [[South America]], and the islands of the [[Caribbean Sea]] when the [[Europe]]ans first came there. The Europeans made a mistake and thought they were going to India, so they called the people "Indians". Other names for these people are American Indians, [[First Nations]], and [[Native American]]s. == Other websites == * [http://www.sumanasa.com/india-news/ India News] Inch The '''inch''' is the basic unit of [[length]] or distance in the English system. A man's [[thumb]] is about an inch wide. * 1 inch = 25.4 [[millimeter]]s * 12 inches = 1 [[Foot (unit of length)|foot]] = 304.8 millimeters * 36 inches = 1 [[Yard (unit of length)|yard]] = 914.4 millimeters * 1 [[metre|meter]] = about 39.37 inches The [[abbreviation]] for "inch" is "in" or " (double quote). In the [[United States]], people use inches more than they use [[millimetre|millimeter]]s or [[centimetre|centimeter]]s. Other [[U.S. customary units]] of [[measurement]] are also in common use. In the [[United Kingdom]], road signs for [[speed limit]]s are in [[mile]]s per hour. In the rest of the world, [[SI|metric units]] are almost always used. The inch is not used when referring to science. Imperial Gallon #redirect [[unit of measurement]] Pint The '''pint''' is the name of a unit of [[liquid]] [[measurement]] in some countries. The pint is defined as of a [[gallon]]. Because the [[Imperial unit|imperial system]] and the [[U.S. customary units|American system]] use different gallons, their pints are different also. The imperial pint is still used to measure [[beer]] in the countries of the old [[British Empire]]. It is usually not used today for anything else. It is divided into 20 [[fluid ounce]]s. The [[United States]] is the only other country to use pints. In the American system there are two pints. There is a wet pint and a dry pint. Six U.S. wet pints are about five imperial pints. The U.S. wet pint is divided into 16 fluid ounces. {| |- |1 imperial pint ||= 20 imperial [[fluid ounce]]s (fl. oz.) |- |||= 0.56826125 [[litre]]s (exactly) |- |||≈ 568 [[millilitre|ml]] |- |||≈ 1.20 U.S. wet pints |- |||≈ 1.03 U.S. dry pints |- |1 U.S. wet pint ||= 16 U.S. fl. oz. |- |||= 0.473176473 litres (exactly) |- |||≈ 473 ml |- |||≈ 0.83 imperial pints |- |||≈ 0.86 U.S. dry pints |- |1 U.S. dry pint ||= 0.5506104713575 litres (exactly) |- |||≈ 551 ml |- |||≈ 0.97 imperial pints |- |||≈ 1.16 U.S. wet pints |- |} Ingenuity #redirect [[creativity]] Italian The word '''Italian''' may mean: *from or about the country of [[Italy]], especially a person from Italy, or the language of Italy. *The '''[[Italian language]]''' is one of the languages that came from [[Latin language|Latin]]. ISO 19011 '''ISO 19011''' is the new [[global]] [[accounting]] [[standard]], replacing accounting standards that were part of [[ISO 14001]] and [[ISO 9001]]. It is the most likely basis for [[accounting reform]] which could put an end to [[accounting scandal]]s. India {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname=Republic of India
[[Hindi]]: भारत गणराज्य
Bhārat Ganarājya | image_flag= Flag of India.svg | image_coa= Emblem of India.svg | image_location=LocationIndia.png | nationalmotto= Satyameva Jayate (Truth alone Wins)| nationalsong= [[Jana Gana Mana]] (anthem)
[[Vande Mataram]] (song) | nationalflower=Lotus | nationalanimal=Bengal Tiger | officiallanguages= [[Hindi]], [[Indian English|English]], 21 other languages | populationtotal=1.12 billion (1,120,000,000) | populationrank=2 | populationdensity=324 | countrycapital=[[New Delhi]] | countrylargestcity=[[Mumbai]] | areatotal= 3,287,590 | arearank= 7 | areawater= 312,321 | areawaterpercent=9.5 | establishedin= [[August 15]], [[1947]] | leadertitlename=[[President]]: Ms [[Pratibha Patil]]
[[Prime Minister]]: Dr. [[Manmohan Singh]] | currency= Indian [[Rupee]] (INR) | utcoffset=+05:30 | dialingcode=91 | internettld=.in }} '''India''' is a [[country]] in [[Asia]]. The official English name of the country is '''Republic of India'''. Some people also call the country '''[[Hindustan]]''' or '''[[Bharat]]'''. (The list of the 21 other official names can be found [[Official names of India|here]]). India has more than 1.12 [[billion]] (1,120,000,000) people, which is more than any other country in the [[world]] except [[China]]. Excluding the disputed territory of [[Jammu and Kashmir]], the Republic of India also has a land area of 2,957,429 [[km²]] (1,183,610 [[square miles]]). This includes the states of [[Sikkim]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. This means that it is bigger than [[Argentina]] but smaller than [[Australia]]. It is the seventh (7th) largest sized country in the world in amount of land. India is the largest [[democracy]] in the world. The capital of India is [[New Delhi]] and India has the third largest army in the world with [[nuclear weapons]]. Although India is a growing economy, it has high levels of [[poverty]], [[illiteracy]] and [[malnutrition]]. India has a higher rate of [[malnutrition]] among [[children]] under the age of three (46% in year [[2007]]) than any other country in the world.{{cite web |url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1421393.ece |title = "Indian children suffer more malnutrition than in Ethiopia" |publisher = [[The Times]] |last = Page |first = Jeremy |date = [[February 22]], [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-28}} == Languages == The [[language]]s spoken by the most people in India are [[English language|English]] and [[Hindi]]. Many people have looked at the diversity of languages and cultures found on the Indian subcontinent. The only other geographical place they found to be more diverse with regards to languages and cultures was the [[Africa|African continent]]. There are two main language families in India, the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] and the [[Dravidian languages]]. About 74% of the people speak an Indo-Arayan language, about 24% speak a Dravidian language. Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families. [[Hindi]] is the language in India with the largest number of speakers. It is the official language of the union. Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), [http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2004/mallikarjunmalaysiapaper1.html Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India], [http://www.languageinindia.com/index.html ''Language in India''], Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940. English is also used, mostly for business and in the administration. It has the status of a 'subsidiary official language.' The constitution also recognises in particular [[Official languages of India|21 other languages]]. For these there are either many people speaking them, or they have been recognised to be very important for Indian culture. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652. In the south of India, many people speak [[Kannada]], [[Telugu]], [[Tamil]] and [[Malayalam]]. In the north, many people speak Chhattisgarhi, [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], and [[Marathi language|Marathi]], Oriya, and Bihari. == History== s of India called Ajanta Caves.]] these people were the ones who made up the [[Indus Valley Civilization]],{{cite web |title = Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley |url = http://www.harappa.com/indus/indus1.html |accessdate = 2007-06-18 |date = 1996 |publisher = Harappa}} which is one of the oldest civilizations on Earth. After that, the Vedic period came. This is the country where two main Classical languages of the world wereborn - [[Sanskrit]] and [[Tamil]]. Both these languages are more than 3000 years old. In these, Tamil is one of the oldest languages existing in the world. The country founded a religion called [[Hinduism]], which most Indians still follow. Later, a king called [[Ashoka]] built an empire called the Maurya dynasty in 300 BC. It made most of [[South Asia]] into one unified country.{{cite web |title = Maurya dynasty |url = http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html |author = Jona Lendering |accessdate = 2007-06-17}} From 180 BC, many other countries invaded India. Even later (100 BC - AD 1100), other Indian dynasties (empires) came, including the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas.{{cite web |title = SOUTH INDIA |url = http://www.webindia123.com/history/MEDIEVAL/history%20south.htm |accessdate = 2007-06-19 |publisher = Suni System Ltd. |date = 2007}} In South India at that time, science, art, and writing were very good and famous. Many [[dynasty|dynasties]] ruled India around the year [[1000]]. Some of these were the Mughal, [[Vijayanagara empire|Vijayanagara]], and the Maratha empires. In the [[1600s]], European countries invaded India, and the British took control of most of India by 1856. {{cite web |title = From Trade to Colonization - Historic Dynamics of the East India Companies |url = http://india_resource.tripod.com/eastindia.html |accessdate = 2007-06-19 |date = June 03, 2007 |paragraph = 18}} In the beginning of the [[1900s]], [[million]]s of people peacefully started to protest (not obey British rule). One of the people who were leading the freedom movement was [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who only used peaceful tactics, including a way called ''ahisma'', which means "non-violence".{{cite book |title = CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA |publisher = Dorling Kindersly Limited |year = 1997 |pages = p. 455 |isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}} On [[August 15]], [[1947]], India peacefully got free from the [[British Empire]]. India's [[constitution]] was founded on [[January 26]], [[1950]]. The first official leader ([[Prime Minister]]) of India was [[Jawaharlal Nehru]]. After 1947, India has become a powerful country. It is one of the nations that founded the Non-Aligned Movement and the [[United Nations]] (when it was being ruled by Britain). It has fought and won many [[war]]s, including ones in [[1947]], [[1962]], [[1965]], [[1971]], and [[1999]]. India has also done nuclear tests in [[1974]] and [[1998]], and it is one of the few countries that has a [[nuclear bomb]].{{cite web |title = India Profile |url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/index.html |accessdate = 2007-06-20 |date = 2003 |publisher = NTI}} Since 1991, India has been one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.{{cite web | author = Montek S. Ahluwalia | title = Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked? | version = | publisher = Journal of Economic Perspectives | date = 2002 | url = http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/speech/spemsa/msa008.doc | format = MS Word | accessdate = 2007-06-13 }} == Government== India is the largest [[democracy]] in the world.{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm | title = Country profile: India | accessdate = 2007-03-21 | date = [[9 January]] [[2007]] | publisher = British Broadcasting Corporation }} Its government is divided into three branches: the Legislative (the one that makes the laws, the parliament), the Executive (the government), and the Judiciary (the one that makes sure that the laws are obeyed, the supreme court). and the lower house, Lok Sabha (House of People). The Rajya Sabha has 250 members,{{cite web | url = http://www.india.gov.in/outerwin.htm?id=http://parliamentofindia.gov.in/ | title = ''Our Parliament'' A brief description of the Indian Parliament | accessdate = 2007-06-16 | publisher = www.parliamentofindia.gov.in }} and the Lok Sabha has 545 members.{{cite web | url = http://www.india.gov.in/outerwin.htm?id=http://parliamentofindia.gov.in/ | title = ''Our Parliament'' A brief description of the Indian Parliament | accessdate = 2007-06-16 | publisher = www.parliamentofindia.gov.in }} The Executive